A  SYMPOSIUM  ON 

SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT  AND 

EFFICIENCY  IN  COLLEGE 

ADMINISTRATION 


COMPRISING  AMONG  OTHERS 

THE  PAPERS  PRESENTED  AT  THE  EFFICIENCY  SESSION 

OF  THE  TWENTIETH  ANNUAL  CONVENTION  OF  THE 

SOCIETY  FOR  THE  PROMOTION  OF  ENGINEERING 

EDUCATION,  HELD  AT  BOSTON,  MASS., 

JUNE  26-29,  1912 


OFFICE  OF  THE  SECRETARY 

ITHACA,  N.  Y. 

1913 


PRESS  of 

THE  NEW  ERA  PRINTING  COMPANY 
LANCASTER.  PA. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

PAGE. 

INTRODUCTION. — T.  B.  Gilbreth  1 

EDUCATIONAL  DEMANDS  OF  MODERN  PROGRESS. — Harrington  Emerson.  4 
PRACTICE  VERSUS  THEORY  IN  THE  SCIENCE  OP  MANAGEMENT. — 

F.  A.  Parklmrst  32 

EDUCATION  AND  EFFICIENT  LIVING. — Meyer  Bloomfield  32 

THE  ENGINEER  AS  A  MANAGER. — H.  L.  Gantt  37 

THE  MEN  WHO  SUCCEED  IN  SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT. — H.  K. 

Hathaway  46 

THE  PLACE  OF  THE  COLLEGE  IN  COLLECTING  AND  CONSERVING  THE 

DATA  OF  SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT. — Wilfred  Lewis 55 

AN  AUXILIARY  TO  COLLEGES  IN  THE  TRAINING  OF  SCIENTIFIC  MAN- 
AGERS.—E.  T.  Kent ' .  62 

TEACHING  SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT  IN  ENGINEERING  SCHOOLS.— 

R.  B.  Wolf 65 

THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT  IN  ENGINEERING 

SCHOOLS.— Hollis  Godfrey  69 

TEACHING  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT. — Walter 

Rautenstrauch  82 

TEACHING  SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT  IN  THE  TECHNICAL  SCHOOLS. 

H.  F.  J.  Porter 94 

A  BROADENED  VIEW  OF  EFFICIENCY  IN  ENGINEERING  INSTRUCTION. 

L.  J.  Johnson  108 

ABSENCES  FROM  CLASSES  ONE  MEASURE  OF  INEFFICIENCY.— F.  P. 

McKibben  112 

THE  PROBLEM  OF  EFFICIENCY  IN  TEACHING. — W.  A.  Hillebrand  ....  118 
THE  ADMINISTRATION  OF  COLLEGE  SHOP  LABORATORIES. — W.  F. 

M.  Goss  129 

SETTING  TASKS  FOR  COLLEGE  MEN. — S.  E.  Thompson 133 

DEPARTMENTAL  ORGANIZATION  AND  EFFICIENCY. — Hugo  Diemer 139 

ACADEMIC  EFFICIENCY.— William  Kent  145 

OPERATING  ENGINEERING  SCHOOLS  UNDER  SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT. 

— H.  Wade  Hibbard 161 

EFFICIENCY  IN  ENGINEERING  EDUCATION. — G.  H.  Shepard 182 

THE  APPLICATION  OF  SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT  TO  THE  OPERATION 

OF  COLLEGES. — S.  E.  Whitaker  205 

SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT  IN  THE  COLLEGES. — E.  F.  Palmer 217 


iii 

267887 


INTRODUCTION.* 

BY  FEANK  B.   GILBRETH, 

Consulting  Engineer,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

The  purposes  of  the  papers  of  this  session  are  to  show : 

1.  What  scientific  management  is. 

2.  What  it  can  do. 

3.  Its  possible  bearing  upon,  and  application  to,  academic 
efficiency. 

Scientific  management  is  measured,  functionalized  manage- 
ment,— management  that  has  submitted  to  measurement,  and 
that  has,  through  the  results  of  this  measurement,  so  divided 
and  arranged  its  work  as  to  demand  and  utilize  individuality 
in  its  workers. 

We  may  well  represent  such  management  by  the  following 
functional  chart. 

"X-x"  represents  the  division  between  the  planning  and 
the  performing.  The  five  circles  above  the  line  "x"  represent 
the  superintendent  and  the  four  functions  of  the  planning 
department, — the  five  circles  below  the  line  "x,"  the  four 
functions  of  the  performing  department  and  the  individual 
worker.  The  lines  connecting  the  various  circles  represent 
the  lines  of  authority,  if  read  downward ;  the  paths  from  which 
direction  and  teaching  come,  if  read  upward. 

This  chart  not  only  shows  the  method  of  operation  of  scien- 
tific management,  but  also  indicates  the  universality  of  its 
field  of  application. 

It  is  this  universality  that  the  various  speakers  and  writers 
at  this  session  will  show.  They  are  all  men  of  action,  whom  I 
have  persuaded  to  leave  their  work  for  today  to  tell  you  of 
their  interpretations  and  applications  of  the  principles  of 

*  Introductory  remarks  by  Chairman  Gilbreth  at  the  session  of  the 
Boston  Convention  of  the  S.  P.  E.  E.  devoted  to  scientific  management. 

1 


2  INTEODUCTION. 

scientific  management  as  laid  down  by  its  founder,  Dr. 
Frederick  W.  Taylor.  Men  of  widely  varying  training  and 
experience,  they  are  all  versed  in  the  practice  as  well  as  the 
theory  of  scientific  management,  and  all  believe  that  through 
scientific  management  alone  can  the  problems  of  the  academic 
as  well  as  the  industrial  world  be  attacked  and  solved.  It  is 
to  this  belief  that  they  have  come  here  to  testify  today,  and 
they  will  bring  to  you  such  justification  for  their  belief  that 
we  know  you  too  must  believe. 


With  measurement  has  come  the  day  of  science.  With 
scientific  management,  the  result  of  measurement,  has  come 
the  application  of  the  laws  of  science  to  all  work, — yours  and 
ours.  This  is  the  message  that  we  bring  to  you  today, — and 
it  is  to  this  message  that  I  know  you  desire  to  listen. 

We  all, — President  Raymond,  Dean  Anthony,  Professor 
Norris  and  myself,  have  cooperated  to  make  it  possible  that 


FRANK   B.    GILBBETH.  o 

this  message  be  brought  to  you.  It  has  back  of  it  a  unity  of 
purpose  and  will.  We  ask,  now,  your  cooperation  in  carrying 
it  to  all  the  great  schools  and  colleges  that  you  represent. 
Through  your  cooperation  only  can  it  be  made  possible  that 
scientific  management  shall  come  into  its  own  as  the  great 
bridge  connecting  and  unifying  the  academic  and  the  indus- 
trial worlds. 


EDUCATIONAL  DEMANDS  OF  MODERN 
PROGRESS. 

BY  HAEEINGTON  EMEESON, 
President  of  The  Emerson  Company,  New  York  City. 

Erie  is  a  fairly  peaceful  lake,  quite  navigable  by  sailors 
of  ordinary  prudence  and  skill. 

Ontario,  further  down  stream,  is  another  peaceful  lake,  also 
quite  navigable  by  sailors  of  ordinary  prudence  and  skill. 

Between  the  two  lakes  courses  the  Niagara  River.  No 
amount  of  skill,  no  prudential  methods  insuring  success  on 
Lake  Erie  are  of  any  use  in  the  rapids  above  and  below  the 
falls,  especially  of  no  use  in  the  thousand  feet  of  swirl  which 
include  the  cataract.  If  the  boatman  can  make  the  portage 
from  the  upper  to  the  lower  lake,  he  may  again  use  his  old 
skill. 

But  Lake  Ontario  narrows  into  the  St.  Lawrence  and  in 
time  this  river  broadens  out  into  the  Atlantic.  Even  the 
skill  of  the  French  Canadian  pilot  through  the  rapids  of  the 
St.  Lawrence  would  not  avail,  would  not  fit  him  to  navigate 
either  sailer  or  steamer  across  the  great  oceans.  The  qualities 
of  courage,  resourcefulness,  calmness  will  count,  but  not  previ- 
ously-acquired specific  knowledge  of  streams  and  shores. 

Time  is  also  a  river.  It  also  has  its  lakes,  its  rapids  and  its 
issuance  into  a  limitless  ocean. 

We,  voyagers  down  the  river,  are  now  already  in  the  stormy 
channel  between  two  epochs.  As  never  before  in  the  history 
of  the  world  has  past  knowledge,  past  experience,  past  skill, 
counted  for  so  little,  and  never  before  in  the  history  of  the 
world  have  men  been  so  poorly  prepared  for  what  was  ahead 
of  them. 

Go  back  in  Europe,  one,  five,  ten,  fifteen  centuries,  and  it  is 
routine  that  counted.  The  lives  of  95  per  cent,  of  men  and 
women  were  fixed  by  status.  The  men  died  of  old  age  near 

4 


HAKRINGTON    EMERSON.  5 

where  they  were  born,  working  at  their  fathers'  and  grand- 
fathers' trade.  As  with  Chinese  women,  it  was  absolutely 
necessary  to  begin  mental,  physical,  moral  foot-bindery  at  the 
earliest  possible  age.  The  Arabs  are  living  to-day  as  they 
lived  in  the  time  of  Abraham.  Neither  their  language,  nor 
their  customs,  nor  their  clothes,  nor  their  food  has  changed. 
Forty  years  ago  in  Germany,  in  Italy,  in  Greece  little  girls 
were  taught  to  knit  and  spin  and  were  kept  at  it  every  possible 
minute  from  dawn  until  dusk,  until  death  came  to  them  as  old 
women.  Routine  training  was  all  important  because  routine 
work  constituted  nearly  all  of  the  world's  work. 

But  routine  training  has  not  fitted  the  boatman  on  the 
waters  of  life  to  cope  with  the  rapids  between  one  epoch  and 
another,  has  particularly  not  fitted  the  boatman  who  has 
floated  down  a  narrow  river  confined  by  the  banks  of  routine 
to  navigate  a  limitless  ocean. 

At  El  Tovar,  on  the  brink  of  the  Grand  Canon  of  the 
Colorado,  is  a  battered  boat.  It  belonged  to  two  inexperienced 
men  who,  in  it,  came  down  the  full  length  of  the  river. 
Although  the  Colorado  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  and  danger- 
ous rivers  in  the  world,  even  danger  can  belong  to  routine. 
Each  rapid  is  largely  a  repetition  of  the  others.  These  men 
acted  with  typical  routine  inspiration.  They  floated  their 
boat  down  stern  foremost,  rowing  against  the  current,  point- 
ing at  what  was  behind  and  not  at  what  was  ahead. 

This  simile  likening  time  to  a  river,  likening  disturbing 
epochs  to  cataracts,  likening  the  future  to  the  limitless  ocean, 
may  be  picturesque,  but  I  shall  justify  it.  , 

When  previous  experience  of  an  industrial  kind  is  not  avail- 
able, then  we  must  use  contemporary  experience  of  a  similar 
kind. 

Races  of  plants,  of  insects,  of  animals,  have  met  crises  for 
which  previous  experience  was  not  available.  Those  who 
made  the  most  mistakes  perished ;  those  who  made  the  fewest, 
survived.  The  survivors  can  give  us  suggestions. 

The  aphides,  plant  insects,  are  normally  without  wings. 
One  generation  succeeds  another  with  monotonous  regularity. 


b  EDUCATIONAL   DEMANDS   OF   MODERN   PEOGEESS. 

There  is  nothing  to  do  but  stick  fast  to  the  particular  plant 
until  its  leaves  have  been  devoured  or  are  withered.  When 
famine  occurs  what  do  the  aphides  do?  The  next  generation 
has  wings  and  flies  away.  Those  who  fail  to  grow  wings 
perish. 

Bees  similarly  work  day  after  day  with  all  the  discipline 
and  habit  of  routine.  It  looks  as  if  no  change  could  ever 
come.  Suddenly  routine  is  wholly  forgotten.  A  swarm 
gathers,  abandons  the  hive,  the  accumulated  stores,  the  loca- 
tion, everything  that  made  bee  life  worth  while,  and,  hanging 
to  some  tree,  waits  while  scouts  seek  some  new  refuge,  the 
hollow  of  a  tree,  a  crevice  in  the  rocks.  The  race  of  bees  is 
preserved  in  these  crises,  not  by  routine,  but  by  desperate 
and  to  man  inconceivable  initiative. 

Among  the  migratory  birds  we  find  the  same  hints.  The 
stork  is  the  emblem  of  domesticity.  On  the  roof  tree  it 
occupies  the  same  nest  year  after  year;  it  is  counted  on  to 
bring  babies  to  human  homes,  but  when  winter  comes  it 
forgets  domestic  routine  and  departs.  A  stork  marked  in 
Norway  was  captured  a  few  weeks  later  in  South  Africa. 

Hatched  in  the  cool  waters  of  a  mountain  stream,  salmon, 
when  partly  grown,  swim  down  and  out  into  the  salt  sea. 
Where  they  stay  for  three  years  no  one  knows.  They  break 
away  from  the  routine  of  the  river  and  go  out  into  a  new  life 
for  which  no  previous  experience  has  prepared  them.  At  the 
end  of  four  years,  giving  up  the  routine  of  the  sea,  they 
return  to  ascend  rivers,  to  leap  up  waterfalls,  to  lead  a  life 
which  is  wholly  and  absolutely  new. 

In  man,  infancy  and  youth  are  marked  by  crises  by  which  a 
comparatively  long  period  of  routine  is  broken  by  great  and 
revolutionary  initiative.  There  are  sudden  and  tremendous 
changes,  from  ovum  to  embryo,  from  foetus  to  breathing  life, 
from  birth  to  weaning,  from  childhood  to  puberty. 

Whether  insects,  fish,  birds  or  men,  when  the  crises  come, 
only  those  who  develop  intiative,  who  forget  routine,  who 
look  ahead  and  not  backwards,  survive.  We  therefore  find 
that  initiative  alternates  with  routine  as  part  of  the  law  of 
progress. 


HARRINGTON    EMERSON.  7 

But  are  we  now  in  a  period  of  transition,  a  peculiar  epoch, 
an  age  requiring  for  survival  initiative  and  not  routine?  If 
we  are  in  such  an  epoch,  then  it  is  immensely  important  to 
free  ourselves  from  the  trammels  of  routine  and  to  grow  the 
wings  of  initiative.  Those  who  do  not  will  perish. 

Let  me  demonstrate  to  you  by  a  single  example  that  we  are 
in  this  epoch  of  transition.  To  bring  out  the  difference  be- 
tween the  old  order  and  the  new,  I  shall  compare  the  genera- 
tion of  power  in  China  and  in  America.  Make  no  mistake! 
The  difference  is  not  one  of  race  capacity.  The  yellow  race 
is  as  numerous  as  the  white,  it  has  counted  among  its  members 
great  religious  teachers,  the  greatest  of  conquerors,  the 
greatest  of  artists,  it  has  evolved  a  civilization  that  has  en- 
dured two  thousand  years.  We  fear  the  Chinese  as  we  do 
not  fear  negroes,  Indians  or  Mexicans.  We  fear  them  on 
account  of  their  superlative  qualities.  The  difference  at  the 
present  time  between  the  white  and  yellow  is  not  one  of  race 
capacity  but  solely  of  opportunity. 

In  China  men  are  paid  $0.01  an  hour  for  climbing  tread- 
mills actuating  stern  wheels  which  propel  river  boats.  These 
coolies  convert  their  stored  human  muscular  energy  into 
mechanical  foot-pounds.  From  experience  with  treadmills  in 
British  prisons  we  know  exactly  the  mechanical  equivalent  of 
hard  labor.  It  is  a  climb  of  8,640  feet  each  24  hours.  This 
is  the  limit  of  human  endurance  for  a  succession  of  days.  To 
convert  this  into  horse-power  we  must  know  the  man's  weight 
and  the  number  of  hours  he  works  each  day.  The  average 
weight  of  man  is  about  150  pounds.  A  man  of  this  weight 
climbing  8,640  feet  in  24  hours  yields  1,296,000  foot-pounds. 
A  horse-power  for  24  hours  is  47,520,000  foot-pounds.  It 
would  therefore  take  36.6  Chinamen  to  yield  a  continuous 
horse-power  and  the  wages  of  these  Chinamen  would  amount 
to  $3.66  per  day,  or  $1,336  a  year. 

From  Niagara  you  can  buy  a  horse-power  year  for  $20.  It 
costs  the  paper  mills  which  have  their  own  power  about  $12  a 
year  for  continuous  horse-power.  Human  energy  at  $0.10  a 
day  costs  one  hundred  and  ten  times  as  much  as  this  water- 


8  EDUCATIONAL   DEMANDS   OF   MODEKN   PKOGKESS. 

power  energy,  although  the  supervising  human  labor  receives 
an  average  of  $3  a  day. 

The  substitution  of  uncarnate  energy  for  human  muscular 
energy  has  increased  wages  thirty-fold  and  has  cheapened 
power  to  1  per  cent,  of  its  cheapest  muscular  price.  This 
is  not  all.  When  men  are  used  as  power  generators  the  supply 
is  strictly  limited  and  can  be  easily  monopolized.  Uncarnate 
energy  is  without  limit  as  long  as  there  is  coal  and  oil  and  gas, 
as  long  as  the  sun  shines  and  makes  organic  fuels  or  draws 
up  water  from  the  surface  of  the  ocean. 

For  strictly  limited  horse-power  at  $1,336  a  year  we  now 
have  unlimited  horse-power  at  a  minimum  price  of  $12. 

We  have  brought  about  this  gigantic  change  in  conditions 
not  by  adhering  to  routine  but  by  abandoning  it.  This 
example  could  be  paralleled  in  every  direction. 

The  ability  to  use  without  limit  cheap  power  has  revolu- 
tionized all  conditions.  To  spade  up  a  section  of  land  would 
take  an  active  man's  energy  for  500  years.  With  oil  power 
tractors  and  gang  plows  three  men  can  turn  over  640  acres 
of  land  in  36  hours.  It  is  good  hard  work  to  make  a  broad 
jump  of  20  feet  at  a  speed  of  10  miles  an  hour,  rising  4  feet 
from  the  ground,  but  aeroplanes  at  the  international  contest 
this  year  will  fly  80  miles  at  a  speed  which  may  reach  110 
miles  an  hour,  and  fly  as  easily  at  an  altitude  of  5,000  feet  as 
at  50.  Formerly  a  man  could  carry  a  maximum  load  of 
100  pounds;  to-day  his  trains  drag  6,000  tons  and  his  ships 
carry  30,000  tons.  Formerly  a  man's  voice  carried  500  feet; 
now  as  he  sits  at  his  desk  he  can  reach  with  his  voice  20,000,- 

000  people,  some  of  them  a  thousand  miles  away. 

I  do  not  consider  myself  an  old  man,  yet  almost  nothing  of 
engineering  importance  to-day  was  taught  when  as  a  youth 

1  went  to  one  of  the  foremost  technical  schools  in  the  world, 
and  almost  nothing  that  I  there  specifically  learned  has  any 
value  to-day.    I  learned  from  Weisbach's  great  work  how  to 
design  Dutch  windmills  and  overhead  water  wheels,  but  not 
a  word  of  dynamos  or  motors,  of  telephones,  of  gas  engines 
or  of  gas  producers,  of  storage  batteries  or  of  aeroplanes.     I 


HARRINGTON    EMERSON.  9 

was  trained  looking  backwards  into  the  past.  I  was  not 
trained  for  what  was  ahead  of  me. 

There  was  never  a  period  since  the  world  began  when  man 
had  so  rapidly  to  abandon  the  practices  of  the  past  and  to 
put  his  trust  in  what  his  father  and  mother  knew  nothing 
about. 

The  changes  in  the  last  fifty  years  have  therefore  scrapped 
most  of  the  technical  experiences  of  the  past  and  have  pro- 
foundly modified  moral  obligations. 

Our  parental  training,  our  religious  training,  our  school 
training  and  our  social  training  have  been  governed  by  the 
ideals  of  the  routine  past.  Although  progress  absolutely  de- 
pended on  initiative  and  to  a  very  small  extent  on  routine, 
we  have  not  been  equipped  morally,  mentally  or  physically 
to  do  good  original  work. 

Much  of  Socialism,  for  instance,  rests  on  the  assumption 
that  the  good  things  in  the  universe  are  strictly  limited  in 
quantity  and  if  any  man  has  more  than  the  average  he  must 
have  robbed  somebody  else.  The  same  assumption  underlies 
the  aspiration  for  suffrage  by  women.  If  anything  was  ever 
a  routine  survival  from  the  foolish  past  it  is  the  idea  that 
suffrage  is  a  panacea.  I  would  give  suffrage  to  those  who 
want  it,  as  I  would  give  away  a  worn-out  garment.  Far  more 
important  than  suffrage  is  the  realization  that  the  home,  the 
school,  the  church  and  the  ball-room,  where  men  and  women 
work  side  by  side,  are  cleaner  and  more  efficient  than  busi- 
nesses managed  by  men  alone. 

The  good  things  in  the  universe  are  not  limited.  The  tele- 
scope shows  that  there  are  billions  of  suns  in  reserve,  most  of 
them  larger  and  finer  than  our  sun.  We  have  reached  out 
with  our  nerves  of  sight  and  rescued  these  suns  from  the 
bottomless  void.  We  may  in  time  harness  their  heat  for 
our  service,  even  as  we  now  make  the  oscillations  of  the  ether 
carry  our  messages.  Grand  opera  is  no  longer  limited  to  the 
rich,  nor  moving  scenes  in  distant  lands  to  bold  travelers. 
The  phonograph,  even  making  alive  the  voices  of  the  dead, 
brings  into  the  lone,  cold,  winter  camp  in  Northern  Alaska 


10         EDUCATIONAL   DEMANDS   OF   MODEBN   PBOGKESS. 

a  wealth  of  music  which  twenty  years  ago  no  emperor  could 
have  commanded.  A  tramp,  for  the  price  of  a  beer,  can  sit 
in  comfortable,  cool  and  restful  darkness,  watching  living 
scenes  out  of  the  long  ago,  scenes  that  not  even  the  greatest 
traveler  could  formerly  have  witnessed. 

It  is  not  true  that  the  few  are  growing  richer  because  they 
are  impoverishing  the  many. 

It  is  true  that  our  greatest  men,  the  men  to  whom  on 
account  of  their  initiative  we  owe  most,  were  not  trained  to 
use  their  great  gifts.  They  received  a  routine  education,  and 
as  they  found  it  of  no  use,  like  children  who  have  found 
a  box  of  matches,  they  did  not  know  how  to  use  the  blessing 
of  fire. 

The  old  rules  of  the  road,  the  turning  to  the  right,  the  halt 
at  grade  crossings  to  look  and  to  listen,  the  speed  limit  of  six 
to  eight  miles  an  hour,  cannot  be  applied  to  aeroplanes,  yet 
we  have  tried  to  keep  our  Rockefellers,  our  Carnegies,  our 
Harrimans,  our  Hills,  within  routine  bounds.  We  have  not 
even  advanced  to  the  state  of  using  modern  devices.  We  are 
still  teaching  our  children  to  read  fairy  tales  instead  of  watch- 
ing moving  pictures ;  we  teach  them  to  write  instead  of  train- 
ing them  on  typewriters ;  we  painfully  drill  into  them  multi- 
plication tables  instead  of  initiating  them  into  the  mysteries  of 
the  slide  rule;  we  teach  them  to  add  and  subtract  instead  of 
drilling  them  on  comptometers;  we  teach  them  to  draw  in- 
stead of  carefully  training  them  to  use  photography ;  we  have 
them  drum  for  years  on  the  piano  even  if  they  have  no 
musical  ability,  when  they  ought  to  be  trained  to  put  a  soul 
into  mechanical  records. 

What  is  the  fault  of  the  whole  educational  system?  As  is 
always  the  case,  when  routine  is  placed  above  initiative,  we 
are  relying  on  methods  and  devices  and  systems  instead  of  on 
principles;  we  codify  our  laws  and  add  countless  new  ones 
instead  of  branding  every  one  of  us  with  the  fundamentals. 
So  absolutely  unprepared  are  we  by  past  training  and  teach- 
ing that  we  would  have  great  difficulty  in  agreeing  as  to 
what  the  fundamentals  are.  The  need  of  the  age  is  clearly 


HARRINGTON   EMERSON.  11 

to  see  and  practice,  not  a  Christian  era  conception,  nor  a 
Crusade  conception,  not  a  Reformation  conception,  not  an 
American  revolution  conception,  but  a  twenty-first  century 
conception  of  the  golden  rule,  of  ethical  ideals  worthy  of  the 
telephone,  wireless,  gas  engines,  aeroplanes  and  radium.  The 
new  era  must  produce  a  new  man.  Will  he  prove  a  Franken- 
stein ? 

I  have  no  right  to  assume  that  I  can  see  further  into  the 
starry  night  ahead  than  any  other  on  the  lookout,  but  it 
seems  to  me  that  what  we  most  need  is  to  come  to  some  under- 
standing of  the  relative  responsibilities  of  individual,  of 
corporation  and  of  state. 

The  collective  average  is  always  weaker  than  the  best  units. 
The  average  duration  of  human  life  is  determined  by  a  means 
in  which  the  shortest  has  as  much  weight  as  the  longest.  The 
average  wisdom  of  government  is  the  mean  between  the  fool 
and  the  wise  man.  The  way  to  better  man  in  the  aggregate  is 
not  to  lessen  the  responsibility  of  each  unit,  but  to  increase  it ; 
to  bring,  from  within,  the  poorest  units  up  to  the  level  of 
the  present  best  and  to  have  the  present  best  establish  a  higher 
standard. 

What  is  the  particular  application  to  engineering  schools? 

Engineers  more  than  any  others  ought  to  be  able  to  appre- 
ciate the  value  of  initiative.  The  courses  in  the  engineering 
schools  ought  to  be  modified  so  as  to  develop  initiative.  Engi- 
neering students  ought  to  be  taught  to  distrust  all  the  tradi- 
tions of  the  past.  The  engineering  teacher  ought  to  warn 
away  from  anything  that  has  already  been  tried  out.  The 
assumption  ought  always  to  be  that  "what  is"  is  probably 
wrong,  and  the  absurdities  of  "what  is,"  for  instance,  a 
locomotive  engineer  on  the  tail  end  of  the  engine,  ought  to  be 
unmercifully  pilloried.  The  student  ought  to  be  taught  to 
guide  himself,  not  by  landfalls  and  landmarks,  but  by  the 
eternal  stars.  It  can  be  done  and  it  is  the  duty  of  teachers 
of  engineering  to  do  it. 


PRACTICE  VERSUS  THEORY  IN  THE  SCIENCE 
OF  MANAGEMENT. 

BY  FREDERIC  A.  PARKHUEST, 

Organizing  Engineer,  Detroit,  Mich. 

It  is  not  the  author's  intention  to  imply  by  the  title  of  this 
article  that  practice  and  theory  do  not  each  bear  a  most  im- 
portant part  in  the  science  of  management.  These  two  words 
are  symbolic  of  two  chief  factions,  one  for  and  one  against 
our  new  science  of  management.  To  the  layman,  scientific 
management  is  a  theory,  pure  and  simple.  To  the  manufac- 
turer, who  has  put  his  plant  under  this  form  of  management, 
it  stands  for  prosperity  to  the  firm  and  all  its  employees,  a 
new  era  of  industrial  peace  and  contentment,  low  costs  and 
high  wages. 

It  is  not  at  all  remarkable  that  there  should  be  such  a  wide 
difference  of  opinion  on  this  subject.  It  would  indeed  be 
remarkable  if  it  were  not  so.  History  repeats  itself.  "What  is 
now  true  of  scientific  management  has  been  in  the  past  true 
of  all  great  steps  or  changes,  tending  to  the  advancement  of 
the  human  race.  The  march  of  progress  in  all  things  would 
cease  were  there  no  obstacles  to  surmount.  Columbus,  Watt, 
Ericson,  Morse,  Marconi,  Langley,  Chanute  and  the  Wright 
Brothers,  as  well  as  many  others,  were  each  and  every  one  at 
first  considered  theorists  or  cranks.  Their  dreams  of  the 
possibilities  of  their  chosen  lines  of  work  at  first  seemed 
ridiculous  to  their  contemporaries  but  the  practical  applica- 
tion of  their  ideas  has  far  outstripped  their  broadest  concep- 
tion of  these  subjects. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  new  science  of  management  will 
come  into  its  own  through  exactly  the  same  process  of  tran- 
sition. The  few  chief  exponents  of  scientific  management  are 
in  exactly  the  same  position  as  were  the  inventors  and  investi- 

12 


FREDERIC   A.   PARKHURST.  13 

gators  mentioned  above.  No  one  can  deny  that  the  field  of 
the  organizing  engineer  opens  into  vast  fields  of  progress. 
The  benefits  which  will  accrue  from  the  universal  application 
of  the  new  science  of  management  will  affect  in  a  greater  or 
less  degree  all  of  the  working  class  in  this  country,  eventually 
the  world.  The  author  once  predicted  that  the  science  of 
management  was  ''slowly  but  surely  becoming  universal  in 
this  country. ' '  That  was  nearly  eight  years  ago,  and  he  now 
reiterates  the  same  prophecy.  In  fact,  the  striving  for  effi- 
ciency in  life  as  well  as  business  is  becoming  universal  much 
faster  than  any  one,  except  the  best  informed,  realizes.  This 
is  primarily  due  to  the  fact  that  in  the  last  year  or  two,  sci- 
entific management  has  been  prominently  brought  to  the 
attention  of  the  entire  country  on  several  great  occasions. 
Chief  of  these  are : 

1.  The  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  investigation  last 
year  into  the  proposed  increase  in  railroad  freight  rates. 

2.  The  formation  in  New  York,  December,  1911,  of  the 
Society  to  Promote  the  Science  of  Management. 

3.  The  conference  on  scientific  management  at  the  Amos 
Tuck  School  of  Administration  and  Finance  at  Dartmouth 
College,  in  October,  1911. 

4.  Formation  of  the  Efficiency  Society  in  New  York,  in  the 
spring  of  1912. 

5.  Congressional  Committee's  investigation  and  report  on 
the  Taylor  and  similar  methods  of  scientific  management. 

In  addition  to  the  above  mentioned  events  there  has  been 
a  general  exploitation  and  discussion  of  the  subject  in  nearly, 
if  not  all,  of  the  trade  journals,  monthly  magazines  and  society 
transactions,  to  say  nothing  of  the  newspaper  reports,  etc. 
All  of  this  publicity  has  of  course  had  its  effect.  Fortunately 
and  justly,  the  majority  of  the  articles  and  discussions  have 
been  favorable  in  their  attitude.  The  few  which  have  not 
been  so  were  obviously  written  by  persons  scanning  the  sub- 
ject superficially  or  with  distorted  vision. 

I  am  sure  that  all  the  chief  supporters  and  exponents  of 
scientific  management  will  join  me  in  heartily  inviting  a 
2 


14  PBACTICE   VEKSUS   THEOBY. 

thorough  and  impartial  investigation  of  its  principles  and  the 
results  which  follow  a  practical  application  of  those  principles. 
Such  an  investigation  is  the  easiest,  most  logical  and  surest 
way  of  enlightening  oneself  on  the  subject.  It  is  unfortu- 
nate that  a  number  of  would-be  critics  have  apparently  not 
made  a  thorough  and  impartial  study  of  this  subject  "on  the 
ground."  They  have  evidently  passed  the  door  and  guessed 
as  to  what  was  within.  They  have  a  perfect  right  to  guess, 
form  their  own  opinions,  etc.,  for  their  own  personal  satisfac- 
tion. When  they  attempt,  however,  to  exploit  their  sup- 
posed knowledge  of  the  subject  to  the  detriment,  intentionally 
or  otherwise,  of  those  directly  to  be  benefited  by  the  adoption 
of  scientific  management,  it  is  time  they  and  their  followers 
become  enlightened. 

There  are  undoubtedly  many  "theorists"  who  believe  that 
scientific  management  can  be  studied,  rehearsed  and  memo- 
rized in  the  school  room  or  library  and  ' '  presto ! "  an  efficiency 
engineer  is  born.  It  must  be  acknowledged  that  many  effi- 
ciency engineers  have  sprung  into  the  field  in  just  this  way. 
They  are  full  of  theory  but  not  the  theory,  and  without  the 
practical  knowledge  of  their  subject  or  of  men. 

Many  theories  may  of  course  be  formed  by  as  many  differ- 
ent men.  These  theories  but  reflect  the  scope  of  each  man's 
imagination  or  grasp  of  the  fundamentals.  There  may  be 
many  theories  as  to  scientific  management,  what  it  is,  its  scope, 
value,  etc.  That  these  theories  vary  so  widely  is  but  natural. 
They  are  due  entirely  to  a  lack  of  understanding,  or  full  com- 
prehension of  the  fundamental  principles.  Mr.  Fred  W. 
Taylor  defines  scientific  management  as  a  combination  of  the 
following  elements : 

A.  "Science,  not  rule  of  thumb." 

B.  "Harmony,  not  discord." 

C.  "Cooperation,  not  individualism." 

D.  "Maximum  output  in  place  of  restricted  output." 

E.  "Development  of  each  man  to  his  greatest  efficiency 
and  prosperity." 

Many  people  consider  the  above  combination  of  elements  a 


FREDERIC   A.   PARKHURST.  15 

theoretical  proposition  which  works  out  easily  on  paper  but 
will  not  resolve  itself  into  a  practical  solution.  Let  us  analyze 
Mr.  Taylor  ?s  principles  separately : 

A.  "Science,  not  rule  of  thumb."     There  has  been  much 
criticism  of  the  word  "science"  or  "scientific"  as  applied  to 
the  problem  of  management.     Many  critics  claim  that  there 
can  be  nothing  scientific  in  works-management  and  that  the 
word  so  used  is  incorrect.    Webster 's  definition  of  science  is : 
"Systematized  knowledge  of  the  conditions  and  relations  of 
mind  and  matter;  accepted  facts  and  principles  as  demon- 
strated by  induction,  observation  or  experiment. ' '    If  systema- 
tized investigation   and  compilation   of  data  pertaining  to 
knowledge  of  the  conditions  and  relations  of  mind  and  matter 
do  not  represent  the  most  important  feature  of  proper  man- 
agement, then  what  does?    A  common-sense  method  of  pro- 
ceeding with  each  piece  of  work  is  to  find 

(a)  What  must  be  done, 

(ft)  What  material  used. 

(c)  How  must  it  be  done. 

(d)  With  what  tools. 

(e)  How  long  will  it  take. 
(/)  When  will  it  be  done. 
(g)  What  will  it  cost. 

To  answer  these  preliminary  questions  satisfactorily  one  must 
have  a  complete  knowledge  of  the  equipment  and  material 
involved,  of  the  qualifications  of  the  individual  workers  and 
of  the  various  other  elements  entering  into  the  completion  of 
each  piece  of  work.  This  comprehensive  knowledge  comes 
through  specially  trained  men,  detailed  to  carry  on  and  record 
all  investigations  necessary.  It  is  most  certainly  in  line  with 
scientific  methods  of  procedure. 

B.  l  i  Harmony,  not  discord. "    It  is  needless  to  say  much  in 
the  way  of  advocating  the  desirability  of  harmony  over  dis- 
cord.    This  of  course  is  axiomatic  and  there  can  possibly  be 
no  sustained  criticism  of  such  a  feature  in  any  form  of  man- 
agement, whether  scientific  or  otherwise. 

C.  "Cooperation,  not  individualism."     Another  common- 
sense  element  which  allows  of  little  controversy. 


16  PKACTICE   VEKSUS   THEORY. 

D.  "Maximum  output  in  place  of  restricted  output. "     A 
concern  to  be  successful,  and  to  run  its  business  profitably, 
must  realize  from  its  equipment  and  working  force  a  maxi- 
mum output  and  each  must  maintain  that  condition  if  it  hopes 
to  stay  in  business  in  the  face  of  modern  competition.     The 
country  is  suffering  to-day  from  over  equipment  in  the  way 
of  plants  and  accessories.    The  result  shows  a  great  waste  both 
in  first  investment  and  indirect  charges  including  depreciation 
while  the  plant  is  running,  to  say  nothing  of  the  great  over- 
head charge  and  depreciation  in  slack  times  when  the  plant 
is  lying  idle.     Why  deny  that  maximum  production  is  too 
often  striven  for  in  a  most  unintelligent  way?    As  far  as  the 
personnel  is  concerned,   maximum  production  can  only  be 
obtained  by  surrounding  them  with  the  elements  mentioned 
above — science,  harmony  and  cooperation. 

E.  ' '  Development  of  each  man  to  his  greatest  efficiency  and 
prosperity. "    Here  again  we  have  an  element  which  should 
need  but  little  argument  in  support  of  it.    In  point  of  fact, 
however,  we  often  find  opinions  to  be  diametrically  opposed  to 
what  we  would  naturally  expect  to  find.     The  trouble,  how- 
ever, is  not  with  the  principle  involved  or  with  the  theory  that 
it  is  a  desirable  and  necessary  thing  to  strive  for — this  maxi- 
mum efficiency  and  prosperity.    The  cause  is  often  a  lack  of 
knowledge  of  what  is  involved  and  a  deplorable  misunder- 
standing of  the  objects  and  intentions  of  those  striving  to 
bring  about  maximum  efficiency. 

I  have  discussed  these  principles  at  some  length  and  many 
may  think  I  am  going  over  ground  which  has  already  been 
covered.  My  object,  however,  in  doing  this  is  to  again  bring 
before  those  who  have  not  clearly  analyzed  the  principles  of 
scientific  management  what  is  involved  and  just  what  the 
ideal  is.  There  has  been  too  much  taken  for  granted  on  the 
part  of  some  critics.  The  result  has  been  a  certain  factor  of 
opposition,  which  is  wholly  uncalled  for.  May  this  resume 
help  to  clear  the  subject. 

One  of  the  common  criticisms  heard  is  to  the  effect  that 
"scientific  management  may  do  for  some  kinds  of  work,  but 


FKEDEBIC   A.   PAEKHUKST.  17 

it  will  not  do  in  ours. ' '  The  exponent  of  the  science  of  man- 
agement must  ever  bear  in  mind  that  he  faces  an  educational 
proposition  continually.  It  is  easy  to  condemn  something 
which  one  does  not  understand.  This  being  an  admitted  fact 
and  bearing  in  mind  that  many  of  the  persons  directly  affected 
by  the  introduction  of  scientific  management  are  not  in  a 
position  to  understand  these  things,  it  behooves  every  organiz- 
ing engineer  to  pay  special  attention  to  this  one  feature — 
namely,  education. 

In  considering  the  educational  feature  one  must  not  over- 
look the  psychological  element  involved.  To  the  author's 
mind  this  is  the  most  important  factor  in  the  successful  in- 
stallation of  the  science  of  management,  and  is  the  one  thing 
which  has  made  failures  from  what  would  otherwise  have  been 
successes.  That  such  failures  have  existed  cannot  be  denied. 
It  is  equally  true  that  the  trouble  has  never  been  with  the 
principles  involved  but  usually  with  the  general  unfitness  of 
those  attempting  to  carry  out  the  work.  Other  failures  can 
be  traced  to  the  attempt  to  copy  and  install  some  particular 
feature  of  scientific  management  without  the  rest  of  the  ele- 
ments necessary.  Men  attempting  to  do  this  usually  have  a 
superficial  book-knowledge  of  the  subject  and  are  wholly  lack- 
ing in  the  true  conception  of  the  ideals  and  principles  in- 
volved. Practical  shop  experience  and  the  ability  to  handle 
men  are  absolute  requisites  for  the  successful  introduction  of 
the  principles  by  any  engineer. 

Before  taking  up  in  detail  some  examples  to  illustrate  the 
difference  between  the  theoretical  feature,  or  the  bare  outline 
of  principle,  and  the  practical  method  of  installing  those  prin- 
ciples, I  want  to  emphasize  the  fact  that  it  is  not  so  much 
what  you  do  in  the  way  of  radical  changes  as  in  how  you 
make  them.  Again  I  repeat  that  the  true  conception  and  real- 
ization of  the  psychological  element  and  its  bearing  on  every 
branch  of  management  work  must  be  recognized  as  the  most 
important  of  all  the  elements.  To  be  successful  the  organiz- 
ing engineer  must  master  the  psychological  feature  of  each 
and  every  problem  first,  last  and  always. 


18  PKACTICE   VERSUS   THEORY. 

Now  as  to  the  methods  used  in  the  practical  application  of 
the  above  mentioned  principles,  the  organizer  must  thoroughly 
acquaint  his  client  with  what  is  involved  in  order  to  realize 
from  these  principles  maximum  results.  Stockholders,  direc- 
tors and  officers  of  the  company  must  be  informed  as  to  what 
may  be  expected  in  the  way  of  results.  They  should  thor- 
oughly study  all  phases  of  the  problem  and  try  to  realize  the 
difficulties  likely  to  be  met.  Not  the  least  of  these  will  be  the 
idiosyncrasies  and  biased  ideas  of  some  of  the  personnel.  The 
fact  must  not  be  lost  sight  of  that  at  least  some  of  the  older 
and  most  valuable  employees  must  be  patiently  and  carefully 
weaned  from  some  or  most  of  their  old  traditions  and  habits. 
Those  of  the  old  school  must  not  be  blamed  if  at  first  they 
show  ignorance  or  disapproval  of  radical  changes.  Their 
environment  and  training  is  responsible  for  this  frame  of 
mind.  These  same  men  will  be  the  most  enthusiastic  and  the 
strongest  supporters  of  the  new  regime  when  they  begin  to 
see  its  advantages.  They  will  be  the  first  to  show  a  new  and 
lasting  sense  of  satisfaction  and  contentment  with  the  elimina- 
tion of  friction,  the  maintenance  of  schedules  and  the  in- 
creased results  easily  accomplished  with  a  minimum  of  mental 
and  physical  outlay. 

The  period  of  transition  is  often  a  long  and  annoying  one 
for  all  concerned.  This  is  due  to  the  many  variables  to  be 
overcome.  Patience  and  tact  will  win  out  in  the  end  if  each 
and  every  one  realizes  that  every  one  is  human  after  all. 
Time  is  the  essential  factor,  and  the  time  required  depends 
upon  the  mental  attitude  of  each.  The  author  to-day  enjoys 
the  friendship  and  cooperation  of  many  men  now  working 
under  scientific  management,  who  at  first  opposed  him  at 
every  turn  and  condemned  new  methods  before  sufficient  time 
had  elapsed  to  prove  their  worth.  Men  must  be  shown,  edu- 
cated, led,  not  driven.  It  is  only  the  extreme  case  where  in 
the  end  a  man  has  to  be  removed  for  failure  to  abide  by  the 
new  order  of  things.  Study  each  man's  character,  find  the 
avenue  of  approach  and  he  can  be  educated  and  made  efficient 
in  spite  of  himself.  Many  men,  particularly  those  in  the  more 


FREDERIC   A.   PARKHURST.  19 

responsible  positions,  have  a  natural  and  deeply  rooted 
antipathy  for  being  shown  by  others.  They  wish  to  be  known 
and  recognized  as  the  originator  of  all  that  is  new  or  an  im- 
provement over  the  existing  order  of  things.  It  has  been  my 
experience  that  one  of  the  best  and  surest  ways  of  handling 
persons  of  this  make-up  is  to  accomplish  the  desired  end 
through  suggestion.  In  the  majority  of  cases  a  few  words 
followed  judiciously  with  concrete  examples  to  illustrate  your 
point  will  sow  the  seed  of  desire.  This  seed  will  immediately 
take  root  and  sprout  forth  as  an  original  and  newly  discovered 
method  sure  to  meet  the  exigencies  of  the  occasion.  This 
method  will  not  do  with  all  men  of  this  mental  attitude.  Some 
will  not  be  influenced  or  convinced  until  shown  by  actual 
accomplishment.  Others  can  be  recruited  by  the  proper  pre- 
sentation of  the  results  of  an  analytical  study  of  conditions 
followed  by  cold,  impartial  figures.  Figures  talk,  especially 
if  they  are  always  recapitulated  into  a  bare  statement  of  value 
in  dollars  and  cents. 

Other  men  will  be  found  in  every  organization  who  have  an 
inherent  faith  in  any  new  departure  ordered  by  their  supe- 
riors. Such  cases  do  not  offer  the  same  kind  of  handicap,  as  do 
those  above  cited.  They  do  offer  another  possible  source  of 
trouble  however:  that  of  a  too  earnest  wish  to  reach  the 
desired  goal,  without  due  appreciation  of  the  difficulties  and 
conditions  to  be  overcome  and  changed.  Material  difficulties 
can  be  removed  with  comparative  ease.  Changes  directly 
affecting  the  personnel  are  often  far  from  easy  and  continual 
restraint  must  be  exercised  for  this  reason.  If  this  restraint 
is  not  present  the  too  enthusiastic  department  head  or  some 
subordinate  will  find  himself  opposed  by  a  stone  wall  of  per- 
sonal opposition.  Many  men  can  be  led  but  only  the  few 
can  be  pushed. 

Education  of  the  rank  and  file  is  fully  as  important  as  the 
education  of  the  principals  and  heads  of  departments.  The 
education  of  the  former  is  much  easier,  however,  when  the 
latter  have  graduated,  so  to  speak.  Let  those  at  the  top  set 
the  example.  Shop  men  as  a  rule  have  the  erroneous  idea 


20  PKACTICE   VEKSUS   THEORY. 

that  their  superiors  and  office  force  are  inclined  to  consider 
themselves  on  a  much  higher  plane  and  seemingly  force  them- 
selves to  the  necessary  intercourse  with  those  beneath  them. 
There  is  no  doubt  but  that  in  many  cases  this  condition  ex- 
ists. That  it  is  often  so  is  most  unfortunate  as  well  as  unneces- 
sary— and  most  undesirable.  One  of  the  greatest  advantages 
of  real  scientific  management  lies  in  the  fact  that  such  a 
demoralizing  and  disastrous  condition  of  affairs  is  eliminated. 
I  do  not  mean  to  imply  by  this  statement  that  scientific  man- 
agement is  the  sole  remedy  for  such  a  condition,  but  it  is  never- 
theless a  sure  remedy.  In  point  of  fact,  under  scientific  man- 
agement the  rank  and  file  are  placed  in  position  to  demand 
and  get  from  their  superiors  proper  working  conditions,  and 
as  to  maintenance  of  equipment  and  supply  of  material,  to 
get  cooperation,  and  the  " square  deal."  Responsibility  is 
placed  where  it  belongs.  No  one  high  or  low  can  ''put  it 
over"  on  another,  because  the  responsibilities  and  duties  of 
each  are  clearly  defined  in  writing.  The  pressure  of  respon- 
sibility is  not  one  sided  and  concentrated  in  one  place,  or 
directed  towards  the  weak.  It  is  equalized.  Instead  of  tur- 
moil and  contention  like  the  troubled  and  restless  sea,  which 
makes  smooth  running  impossible,  we  have  the  calm  and 
reliable  medium  of  a  harbor  sheltered  by  the  bulwarks  of 
harmony.  The  least  opposing  influence  immediately  becomes 
apparent.  It  can  be  localized  and  remedied  at  once. 

The  best  influence  is  an  honest  confidence  in  the  entire  per- 
sonnel. An  efficient  organization  with  reliable  heads  and  a 
spirit  of  cooperation  in  touch,  through  these  mediums,  with 
all  of  the  personnel,  lays  the  foundation  for  a  lasting  and 
trouble-free  industrial  or  business  condition.  To  bring  about 
these  conditions  eternal  vigilence  is  necessary.  No  one  must 
be  allowed  to  harbor  any  misunderstanding  as  to  the  intent 
of  the  reorganization.  Investigate  and  trace  to  its  source 
every  disturbing  influence.  Let  no  one  misunderstand  the 
ultimate  object  in  view.  Openly  advertise  and  propound  the 
chief  elements  or  principles  of  our  new  science  of  management. 


FKEDEBIC   A.   PAKKHUKST.  21 

A.   SCIENCE,  NOT  RULE  OP  THUMB. 

Having  observed  the  above  essentials,  the  next  step  is  to 
bring  under  control  equipment,  methods  and  output.  This 
has  formerly  been  left  to  the  foreman  and  bosses.  Details 
and  responsibilities  have  been  thrust  upon  them  which  should 
be  borne  by  others.  Specialization  is  the  order  of  the  day 
under  scientific  management. 

The  modern  planning  room  is  the  first  really  radical  inno- 
vation. The  production  clerk,  order-of-work  clerk,  route  clerk, 
material  boss,  shop  engineer,  time-study  man  and  speed 
bosses,  are  new  functional  men.  These  are  created  to  take 
off  of  the  shoulders  of  foremen  and  others,  duties  for  which 
they  are  specially  trained.  Through  this  department  we  begin 
to  control  shop  equipment,  methods  and  material. 

The  different  planning-room  men  begin  through  analytical 
study  of  conditions  to  determine  the  shop  conditions.  Work 
for  the  shops  is  planned  and  distributed  in  the  most  efficient 
way.  Delays  due  to  faulty  equipment  are  investigated  and  a 
recurrence  made  impossible.  Equipment  is  tuned  up,  cared 
for  and  kept  in  repair.  The  result  is  that  each  machine  and 
man  is  made  more  productive.  There  are  no  waits  or  delays 
on  account  of  absence  of  material  with  which  to  work.  Some 
men  or  machines  are  not  piled  up  with  work  while  others 
work  from  hand  to  mouth.  The  work  ready  for  processing  is 
evenly  and  judiciously  distributed.  I  have  known  of  cases 
where  one  third  (J^)  of  a  day  of  man  and  machine,  often 
of  gangs  of  men,  has  been  wasted,  due  to  such  causes.  This 
condition  is  common;  the  effect  is  demoralizing  and  tends 
to  gradually  decrease  the  daily  output  per  man.  Over  equip- 
ment due  to  lack  of  planning  and  to  pure  guesswork  is  also 
largely  responsible  for  a  decreased  output  per  capita.  Pro- 
duction clerk,  order-of-work  clerk,  route  clerk,  and  material 
boss  remedy  this. 

Having  provided  for  the  maintenance  of  standardized 
equipment,  conditions  and  flow  of  material,  the  methods  must 
be  investigated.  The  shop  engineer  determines  the  tools  and 
methods;  the  time-study  boss  determines  the  standard  time, 


22  PRACTICE   VEKSUS   THEORY. 

and  the  data  is  available  for  the  issuance  of  instruction  cards. 
The  speed  bosses  then  see  that  the  instruction  cards  are  fol- 
lowed and  the  standard  time  realized. 

It  will  be  seen  by  the  above  brief  explanation  that  what  is 
ordinarily  done  by  one  or  two  men  is  done  under  scientific 
management  by  six  or  seven  or  more,  depending  upon  the 
kind  of  business.  What  is  the  result?  Each  of  the  chief 
planning  room  men  becomes  highly  proficient  in  his  particular 
branch.  Through  them  it  is  possible  to  itemize  and  analyze 
into  small  elements  all  details  of  a  business.  They  have  com- 
plete and  up-to-date  records  of  all  work  which  has  been  done. 
Comparison  can  be  made,  both  of  methods,  quality,  time  and 
cost.  Kelative  capacity  of  machines,  men,  productive  units 
and  departments  can  be  made,  and  work  planned  and  dis- 
tributed accordingly.  Elemental  operations  can  be  standard- 
ized, and  men  can  be  trained  to  do  them  in  standard  time 
with  a  minimum  of  effort.  Each  man's  efficiency  can  be  kept 
track  of  and  his  work  and  pay  regulated,  independent  of  his 
fellow  workmen.  The  accumulation  of  data  makes  possible 
the  correct  determination  of  how  much  men  as  well  as 
machines  can  do  daily  without  undue  fatigue  and  eventual 
break-down.  We  can  safeguard  our  machines  by  not  over- 
loading them,  because  stresses  due  to  tool  pressure,  torque  and 
vibration,  can  be  controlled  through  instruction  cards.  Fewer 
accidents  will  occur  on  this  account  because  detailed  study  of 
operations  determines  the  best  and  safest  way  to  do  a  given 
piece  of  work.  Not  many  people  realize  how  comparatively 
few  different  elemental  operations  are  actually  necessary  for 
the  performing  of  all  kinds  of  work  in  any  one  trade,  until 
they  have  analyzed  and  studied  them  personally. 

Consider  the  above  carefully  and  then  answer  the  following 
questions  for  yourself.  Can  any  foreman  who  is  in  charge  of 
the  average  sized  department  with  all  its  variety  of  equipment 
and  its  twenty-five  to  fifty  or  more  men,  keep  track  of  all  the 
above  elements  and  so  obtain  maximum  efficiency?  Were  he 
mentally  and  physically  capable  of  all  the  work  necessary, 
could  he  be  an  expert  and  highly  proficient  in  so  many  different 


FREDERIC   A.   PARKHURST.  23 

lines?  Could  he  even  find  time  to  both  plan  and  execute  on 
the  scale  required?  Would  he  be  in  possession  of  the  data 
necessary  to  absolutely  control  methods,  conserve  the  time  of 
each  man,  eliminate  delays,  etc.  ?  Could  he  be  always  fair  and 
just  and  impartial  in  handling  his  men?  The  answer  is  most 
emphatically  no.  A  jack  of  all  trades  is  master  of  none.  Yet 
ordinary  management  often  demands  of  its  foreman  all  of  the 
above  and  more. 

What  will  the  planning  room  accomplish  for  a  concern? 
Combined  with  bonus  system  of  extra  remuneration,  it  will 
result  in  doubling,  tripling,  and  sometimes  quadrupling  the 
output  of  a  plant.  It  will  reduce  labor  costs,  including  the 
extra  overhead  from  30  per  cent,  to  50  per  cent,  and  increase 
wages  from  35  per  cent,  to  50  per  cent. — in  some  cases  even 
more. 

A  word  will  not  be  out  of  place  regarding  obvious  advan- 
tages of  these  methods  in  setting  correct  rates.  It  is  not  un- 
usual to  find  piece  or  premium  rates  set  by  the  usual  guess- 
work methods  that  allow  a  man  to  earn  $7.00  to  $8.00  per  day 
for  much  less  return  than  represents  a  fair  day's  work.  I 
have  known  of  several  cases  where  a  piece  rate  was  cut  nearly 
in  halves  because  the  man  was  earning  about  $8.00  per  day. 
After  the  cut  he  still  earned  $8.00.  Obviously  the  original 
rate  was  four  times  what  it  should  have  been.  The  work  did 
not  require  skilled  help  and  $4.00  per  day  would  be  a  gener- 
ous wage.  Aside  from  this,  the  man  was  limiting  output  dur- 
ing the  time  he  was  making  on  the  original  rate.  He  doubled 
his  output  when  the  rate  was  cut.  Had  stop  watch  observa- 
tions been  made  by  a  properly  trained  time  study  man,  pref- 
erably one  who  was  skilled  in  the  trade  under  observation, 
this  could  not  have  happened.  The  result  of  improperly  set 
rates  need  not  be  discussed  here  at  length.  They  include  dis- 
satisfaction on  the  part  of  the  firm;  the  inevitable  cut  and 
continual  dissatisfaction  on  the  part  of  the  men ;  limitation  of 
output ;  increase  of  discontent  and  deceit  and  eventually  labor 
troubles.  The  elimination  of  these  troubles  will  save  many 
times  more  each  year  than  it  costs  to  run  a  planning  room. 


24  PBACTICE   VEKSUS   THEOKY. 

When  a  foreman  sets  a  rate,  he  estimates  it  by  using  day- 
work  output  as  a  basis.  He  adds  something  to  it  for  luck  and 
sets  his  rate.  Actually  the  rate  of  day-work  under  ordinary 
shop  conditions  as  compared  to  bonus  work  under  scientific 
conditions  is  1  to  3  or  4  on  the  average ;  some  cases  1  to  10  or 
even  more. 

There  are  certain  difficulties  to  overcome  when  establishing 
bonus  in  a  plant  accustomed  to  piece  or  premium  improperly 
set.  These  difficulties  consist  chiefly  of  a  marked  difference  in 
the  maximum  earning  power  of  a  man  based  on  a  bonus  rate 
set  after  an  itemized  time  study,  as  compared  to  the  arbitrary 
piece  or  premium  rate.  The  preceding  paragraph  has  ex- 
plained in  part  what  these  differences  are.  In  addition,  how- 
ever, to  the  difference  in  the  ultimate  day's  earnings,  more 
trouble  is  met  with  in  trying  to  educate  the  workman  to  an 
entirely  new  viewpoint.  This  can  best  be  explained  by  call- 
ing attention  to  the  fact  that  what  we  purchase  is  a  man's 
time  and  not  his  output.  It  is  up  to  the  organization  to  see 
that  a  fair  output  per  day  is  realized.  When  this  output 
reaches  a  fair  average  maximum,  the  extra  remuneration  is 
in  the  form  of  a  bonus,  the  result  being  an  increased  daily 
earning.  Comparing  a  differential  bonus  scale  of  prices,  how- 
ever, the  tendency  on  the  part  of  the  man  is  to  consider  it 
only  as  a  piece  rate.  To  further  illustrate  this  point,  if  we 
have  a  job  that  has  been  paying  seven  cents  (7  c.)  a  piece  and 
the  production  has  been  about  fifty  pieces  per  day,  the  piece 
rate  earning  of  the  man  is  $3.50.  If  this  method  of  payment 
is  replaced  with  differential  bonus,  the  tendency  is  to  com- 
pare the  difference  in  earnings  of  the  day  for  the  last  few 
pieces.  The  result  is  that  the  man  feels  he  is  being  paid  at 
only  the  rate  of  say,  two  cents  (2  c.)  a  piece,  losing  sight  alto- 
gether of  the  fact  that  he  has  been  assured  of  his  nominal  day 
rate  irrespective  of  his  production. 

The  above  mentioned  troubles  are  not  found  where  improp- 
erly set  piece  or  premium  rates  do  not  exist.  Neither  is  there 
similar  trouble  in  establishing  bonus  rate  in  a  shop  which  has 
worked  only  under  regular  hourly  or  daily  wage.  One  often 


FKEDEKIC   A.    PARKHUKST.  25 

has  to  contend  with  the  natural  antagonism  of  some  men  who 
feel  that  the  installation  of  bonus  is  some  means  in  disguise 
of  further  reducing  their  earning  power.  This  objection, 
however,  can  readily  be  overcome  after  the  men  realize  that 
the  rates  will  be  established  correctly  in  the  first  place,  and 
remain  unchanged  so  long  as  the  piece  or  job  remains  un- 
changed, in  design,  method  or  equipment.  Of  course  guaranty 
not  to  change  rates  would  as  readily  apply  to  piece  or  premium 
work  under  like  conditions.  The  trouble,  however,  is  that 
piece  or  premium  work  is  usually  priced  arbitrarily  and  so 
results  in  unfair  rates,  both  to  the  man  and  to  the  firm. 
Therefore,  it  is  practically  impossible  to  guarantee  any  per- 
manency. 

B.  HARMONY,  NOT  DISCORD. 

This  is  the  second  element  of  the  combination  defined  by 
Mr.  Taylor.  How  often  we  hear  the  criticism  that  harmony 
is  realized  in  almost  all  lines  of  business  and  that  it  has  nothing 
whatever  to  do  with,  neither  should  it  be  particularly  identi- 
fied with,  scientific  management.  If  this  is  so,  and  if  harmony 
is  such  a  well-understood  and  common  element,  why  don't  we 
see  more  of  it  in  the  average  manufacturing  or  industrial 
establishment?  The  fact  remains  that  in  a  great  many  in- 
stances, harmony  is  conspicuous  by  its  absence.  Many  of  the 
chief  reasons  for  this  condition  can  be  traced  directly  to  the 
case  illustrated  in  the  last  few  preceding  paragraphs.  Its 
absence  is  often  due  to  that  great  variable  the  personal  factor. 
This  is  particularly  so  in  large  plants  which  have  grown 
rapidly  and  abnormally.  Their  sudden  growth  has  demanded 
the  mushroom  type  of  organization  which  must  of  necessity 
lack  the  refinement  of  one  more  deliberately  planned. 

There  are  a  great  many  factors  tending  to  create  discord, 
some  of  which  require  an  immense  amount  of  time  to  remove. 
As  far  as  the  personnel  is  concerned,  this  can  be  handled  and 
developed  in  the  way  previously  referred  to  in  this  article. 
When  that  is  accomplished  the  next  move  is  to  inspire  every- 
one with  the  policy  that  only  the  square  deal  will  prevail. 


26  PEACTICE   VEESUS   THEOEY. 

To  bring  about  this  condition,  extremely  strict  order  of  dis- 
cipline must  be  maintained  and  the  policy  of  the  company 
clearly  defined  so  that  everyone  can  work  in  harmony  with  it. 
Each  member  of  the  organization  must  be  forced  to  realize  the 
fact  that  everyone  is  employed  to  work  for  the  company's 
interests,  and  cooperate  and  work  in  harmony  with  his  asso- 
ciates. Discrimination  of  individuals  must  be  absolutely 
prohibited.  This  latter  dictum  is  one  likely  to  be  far-reaching 
in  its  nature.  Men  have  to  be  trained  to  lay  aside  their  per- 
sonal likes  and  dislikes  and  to  regard  their  work  from  an 
entirely  different  viewpoint.  This  is  hard  at  .first,  but  after 
they  become  accustomed  to  the  new  order  of  things  and  begin 
to  realize  the  certain  advantage,  it  is  as  natural  to  work 
harmoniously  as  otherwise,  and  much  more  comfortable. 

One  of  the  greatest  disturbing  elements  in  connection  with 
building  an  efficient  and  harmonious  organization  is  the  one 
of  poor  pay.  It  is  a  mistaken  idea  on  the  part  of  many 
managers  and  heads  of  departments  that  they  are  earning 
money  for  the  company  and  running  their  department  cheaply 
by  the  employment  of  cheap  help.  This  is  as  true  of  office 
employees  as  it  is  of  the  rank  and  file.  The  layman  little  real- 
izes the  actual  difference  between  output  per  man  as  com- 
pared to  large  differences  in  pay  per  man.  For  example, 
many  cases  can  be  cited  where  a  man  earning  $2.50  has  an 
output  which  can  be  expressed  by  unity;  by  an  expenditure 
of  more  money  for  sufficient  supervision,  proper  maintenance 
of  equipment,  etc.,  plus  extra  incentive  to  the  man  for  follow- 
ing instructions  and  putting  up  a  fair  day's  work,  a  pro- 
duction can  be  realized  which  may  be  expressed  by  3  or  4 
and  sometimes  much  more. 

The  difficulties  in  the  way  of  remedying  this  condition  while 
promoting  harmony  are  very  many.  This  statement  may  seem 
strange,  but  it  is  nevertheless  true.  In  many  cases  the  great- 
est objection  comes  from  those  who  are  eventually  to  be  directly 
benefited  by  this  change  of  condition.  The  average  shop  man 
presents  another  stumbling  block  by  considering  his  own  par- 
ticular work  more  or  less  his  private  asset,  of  which  the  firm 


FREDERIC   A.   PARKHURST.  27 

should  know  little  or  nothing.  In  other  words,  he  feels  that 
the  more  dependent  the  firm  is  upon  him  for  information, 
the  more  secure  his  position  with  them  will  be.  The  fact  is 
lost  sight  of  that  promotion  is  often  denied  a  man  because 
through  lack  of  organization  and  knowledge  on  the  part  of  the 
firm,  he  is  forced  to  remain  in  a  minor  position.  When  data 
of  each  man's  ability  is  in  the  hands  of  the  firm,  advancement 
can  be  made  commensurate  with  his  ability  without  in  any 
way  tending  to  disrupt  or  retard  his  work  or  that  of  his  de- 
partment. In  order  to  bring  about  this  condition  and  estab- 
lish a  self-sustaining  organization,  each  incumbent  of  impor- 
tant positions,  including  heads  of  departments,  should  train 
and  have  immediately  under  him  a  successor  competent  to 
take  over  his  duties  and  responsibilities  at  a  moment's  notice. 
This  condition  can  pertain  to  a  small  organization  as  well  as 
to  a  large  one.  A  man  may  often  fulfill  the  duties  of  several 
positions  where  the  duties  of  one  do  not  require  all  of  his 
daily  time. 

C.   COOPERATION,  NOT  INDIVIDUALISM. 

This  element  in  a  general  way  can  be  considered  in  the 
same  manner  as  harmony.  Individualism  in  the  ordinary 
form  of  management  can  be  likened  to  cooperation  under 
scientific  management  in  much  the  same  way  as  individual 
effort  among  a  body  of  men  can  be  compared  to  well-trained 
and  highly-organized  team  work.  Our  modern  professional 
baseball  team  is  probably  one  of  the  greatest  examples  of 
scientific  management  before  the  world  to-day.  The  fact  is 
little  realized  by  the  thousands  of  enthusiastic  fans  who 
watch  one  of  our  league  games.  Great  enthusiasm  is  often 
manifested  over  some  startling  or  spectacular  play  on  the 
part  of  an  individual  which  may  appear  to  be  absolutely  spon- 
taneous. The  truth  of  the  matter  is  that  the  majority  of  such 
plays  have  been  carefully  worked  out  by  long  and  tedious 
practice  and  intricate  time  studies.  The  result  is  that  with 
the  player  on  base  and  the  ball  in  a  certain  part  of  the  field, 
or  in  the  hands  of  a  pitcher  about  to  be  played,  the  success 


28  PBACTICE   VEKSUS   THEOEY. 

of  the  proposed  play  can  almost  invariably  be  predetermined. 
This  has  been  brought  down  to  an  exact  science. 

It  may  seem  ridiculous  to  say  that  the  modern  battleship 
is  handled  and  controlled  by  a  planning  department;  never- 
theless this  is  exactly  true.  The  handling  of  a  battery  of 
large  guns  in  record  time  and  the  percentage  of  hits  which 
ten  years  ago  seemed  absolutely  impossible,  involves  the  co- 
operation of  a  great  many  different  men.  The  use  of  highly 
perfected  instruments,  combined  with  the  predetermined  con- 
dition of  the  atmosphere,  variations  and  speed  of  the  wind, 
weight  and  condition  of  powder,  etc.,  all  enter  into  the  prob- 
lem. In  the  report  of  the  battle  of  Santiago,  our  patriotic 
and  enthusiastic  populace  marveled  at  the  feats  of  gunnery 
and  markmanship  displayed  by  the  United  States  battleships. 
The  truth  is  that  to-day  it  would  be  considered  a  most  dis- 
graceful exhibition.  Only  five  per  cent,  of  the  shots  fired  at 
Santiago  reached  the  mark  and  at  comparatively  short  ranges. 
To-day,  under  like  conditions  from  sixty-five  to  seventy-five 
per  cent,  of  the  shots  would  reach  their  marks  and  at  ranges 
mounting  as  high  as  eight  or  nine  thousand  yards,  and  at 
speeds  double  those  involved  in  1898. 

In  industrial  establishments  like  comparisons  can  be  made. 
Investigation  will  show  an  immense  amount  of  duplication 
between  departments.  Similar  operations  in  like  trades  will 
be  found  to  vary  widely  in  method  and  more  widely  yet  in 
time  consumption.  Each  journeyman  has  his  own  particular 
idea  of  how  his  work  should  be  prepared,  how  his  tools  should 
be  forged  or  ground,  and  the  condition  of  the  material  with 
which  he  works.  Thus  these  elements  become  great  variables 
because  the  whim  and  biased  notions  of  the  individual  make 
them  so.  Standardization  of  these  elements  greatly  simpli- 
fies them.  Lack  of  unity  of  purpose  and  ideals  results  in  the 
individual  limiting  himself  and  his  chances  of  advancement 
as  well  as  limiting  that  most  vital  of  all  interests,  his  earning 
power. 

Complete  cooperation  and  unity  of  men,  methods  and 
equipment  will  revolutionize  the  entire  tone  and  capacity  of  a 


FREDERIC    A.    PAEKHUEST.  29 

plant.  Where  departmental  functions,  both  as  a  whole  and 
in  detail,  do  not  thoroughly  dovetail  into  a  harmonized  whole, 
friction  and  disruption  will  exist.  It  is  a  well-known  fact 
that  we  are  not  to-day,  as  a  rule,  turning  out  the  high-class, 
all-around  mechanics  that  we  did  years  ago.  The  reason  for 
this  is  obvious,  although  the  remedy  for  it  is  not  so  obvious 
to  the  layman.  There  can  be  no  dispute  over  the  fact  that 
scientific  management  favors  the  apprentice,  handyman  and 
journeyman  rather  than  the  firm  itself.  When  organized 
labor  realizes  what  scientific  management  actually  is,  they 
will  find  they  have  much  more  to  gain  by  cooperation  and 
acceptance  of  its  principles  than  they  can  hope  to  gain  by  any 
other  method.  This  statement  can  be  easily  proved  by  investi- 
gating the  plants  working  to-day  under  its  form  of  manage- 
ment. 

It  may  be  well  here  to  cite  a  remark  made  by  the  superinten- 
dent of  a  large  and  well-established  industrial  plant  in  the 
East.  In  speaking  to  one  of  our  noted  efficiency  engineers  of 
the  work  which  was  being  accomplished,  he  said  that  his  firm 
would  be  thoroughly  satisfied  if  the  only  benefit  they  realized 
from  scientific  management  was  the  increased  wage  and 
higher  moral  standing  of  their  men  and  the  attendant  pros- 
perity which  would  accrue  from  the  change.  This  statement 
expresses  a  sentiment  which  many  of  the  laboring  class  cannot 
acknowledge  exists  on  the  part  of  the  manufacturer.  Such 
sentiment  is  growing,  however,  and  that  the  fact  is  not  more 
fully  realized  by  the  working  man  is  to  be  regretted. 

J>.   MAXIMUM  OUTPUT  IN  PLACE  OF  EESTRICTED  OUTPUT. 

Reference  has  previously  been  made  in  this  article  to  the 
ratio  of  production  under  ordinary  management  to  that 
under  scientific  management.  A  great  part  of  this  is  due,  of 
course,  to  the  change  in  organization,  plant  methods,  etc. 
The  balance  is  due  to  the  increased  effort  and  interest  ex- 
hibited by  the  men,  encouraged  by  a  higher  average  of  wage. 
The  natural  incentive  on  the  part  of  the  men  is  lacking  un- 
3 


30  PKACTICE   VEKSUS   THEOBY. 

less  all  elements  referred  to  are  present.  As  soon  as  a  better- 
ment of  condition  has  been  realized,  men  are  mentally  in  a 
different  attitude,  and  will  naturally  exert  themselves  to  earn 
the  additional  compensation. 

The  demoralizing  effect  of  incorrect  rate  setting  cannot  be 
over  emphasized.  It  tends  to  promote  a  disposition  to  deceive 
and  restrict  output.  Such  a  condition  naturally  breeds  dis- 
content and  lack  of  confidence  in  the  management.  One  must 
rely  largely  on  the  individual's  tendency  to  better  his  own 
condition  when  the  opportunity  presents  itself.  When  the 
man  learns  how  to  produce  his  maximum  with  the  prospect 
of  a  definite  and  immediate  reward,  he  finds  more  pleasure 
in  his  work.  He  is  mentally  in  condition  to  aspire  to  do  the 
best  that  is  in  him  and  he  develops  the  natural  pride  which  is 
more  or  less  latent  in  everyone. 

E.   DEVELOPMENT  OF  EACH  MAN  TO  HIS  GREATEST  EFFI- 
CIENCY AND  PROSPERITY. 

This  development  comes  as  a  natural  result  of  the  preceding 
elements  working  in  accord.  The  highly-trained  and  effi- 
cient men  receiving  a  large  weekly  pay  make  better  citizens 
than  the  inefficient  and  underpaid.  They  are  enabled  to 
do  better  for  their  families,  as  to  housing,  clothing,  and 
feeding  them,  and  they  are  enabled  to  give  their  children 
better  education.  There  are  many  children  of  to-day  denied 
the  education  that  belongs  to  them  with  the  result  that  their 
entire  after-life  is  handicapped.  They  are  denied  the  ad- 
vancement and  opportunities  which  are  more  and  more  becom- 
ing subject  to  the  individual's  mental  development.  If  the 
little  red  schoolhouse  is  to  represent  one  of  our  chief  consti- 
tutional pillars  in  which  we  take  so  much  pride,  it  must  be 
supported  by  a  high  standard  of  American  citizenship.  What 
this  really  means  can  only  be  fully  appreciated  by  the  study 
of  home  conditions  in  a  largely  foreign  community  employ- 
ing low-grade  and  comparatively  ignorant  help.  The  develop- 
ment of  a  healthy  mind  and  body  while  young  is  the  only 
possible  mainstay  to  a  cosmopolitan  nation  such  as  this 


FEEDEEIC   A.   PAEKHUEST.  31 

United  States  is  growing  into.  As  efficiency  will  bring  about 
the  increase  in  wages,  so  it  will  ultimately  result  in  the 
decreased  cost  of  the  necessities  of  life.  In  other  words, 
when  we  become  universally  efficient,  both  individually  and 
collectively,  in  all  walks  of  life  ranging  from  the  farm  to  the 
banking  house,  our  net  return  per  capita  is  going  to  be 
greatly  increased. 

We  must  make  radical  changes  in  most  of  our  traditional 
ways  of  doing  things  and  we  must  realize  a  new  standard  of 
ideals.  This  can  only  be  brought  about  by  a  long  and  pains- 
taking course  of  hard  knocks  and  experience.  Students  of 
this  subject  should  study  it  from  the  practical  standpoint 
and  by  close  detailed  investigation  of  its  actual  workings.  It 
is  not  in  any  sense  a  subject  to  be  learned  from  books,  but  one 
which  must  be  learned  from  close  contact  with  and  thorough 
understanding  of  the  personal  element  involved.  Only  in 
this  way  can  the  psychological  conditions  be  fully  appreciated 
and  understood. 


EDUCATION    AND    EFFICIENT    LIVING. 

BY  MEYER  BLOOMFIELD, 
Director  of  the  Vocation  Bureau,  Boston,  Mass. 

Mankind  has  passed  through  various  ' '  ages, ' '  picturesquely 
described  by  the  historian  as  the,  ages  of  steam,  of  iron,  of 
steel,  of  electricity.  But  all  indications,  all  the  signs  of  the 
day  in  which  we  find  ourselves,  the  industrial  unrest,  the 
changes  in  our  legal  and  political  institutions,  the  acid  test  of 
organized  enterprise  through  scientific  management,  and  the 
transformation  of  our  educational  policies,  point  to  an  age 
which  transcends  in  value  all  the  historic  ages  preceding — 
the  age  of  man — that  period  in  which  society  sets  out  to  dis- 
cover how  the  energies  of  men  can  be  liberated  for  the  most 
effective  living,  livelihood,  and  social  service. 

To  the  engineer  and  to  the  methods  of  our  technical  schools, 
the  social  reformer  and  the  progressive  educator  owe  a  larger 
debt  than  is  generally  recognized.  The  antiquated  idea  of 
education  as  the  privilege  of  a  fortunate  few,  enjoyed  for  the 
most  part  in  a  cloistered  aloofness  from  the  problems  of 
common  life,  has  been  fast  crumbling  away  under  insistent 
modern  demands  for  democratic  training  of  "all  the  children 
of  all  the  people";  demands  arising  not  only  because  of  the 
necessity  for  civic  self-preservation,  but  also  because  a  truer 
understanding  of  human  capacities  makes  us  all  impatient 
with  the  present  waste  of  gifts,  talents,  and  human  possi- 
bilities. 

We  have  been  so  busy  trying  to  catch  up  with  our  tasks  of 
spreading  the  common  schools,  lessening  illiteracy,  and  pro- 
moting good  citizenship,  that  we  could  not  pause  long  enough 
to  consider  differences  in  human  nature  and  the  fundamental 
importance  of  differentiating  our  approach  to  each  individual. 
In  times  of  stress  and  emergency  we  do  not  inquire  too  closely 
into  personal  merits.  All  must  be  dealt  with  alike,  all  who 

32 


MEYEK  BLOOMFIELD.  33 

seek  must  be  supplied.  When  normal  conditions  are  restored, 
however,  more  scientific  methods  must  be  followed  or  the 
resulting  harm  may  far  outweigh  the  good.  So  with  our 
schools.  As  the  basic  need  for  the  elementary  instruction  of 
the  masses  in  elementary  subjects  is  met  (and  there  is  yet 
much  to  be  done  in  this  country)  then  stock-taking  and  a 
scrutiny  of  methods  and  accomplishments  become  a  part  of 
intelligent  administration.  During  the  extension  of  popular 
opportunities  for  schooling,  for  several  decades  past,  there 
have  developed  the  modern  schools  of  applied  science  and  the 
specialization  in  the  engineering  branches.  No  greater  con- 
tribution to  educational  progress  has  come  during  this  period 
than  in  the  lesson,  taught  by  these  schools,  of  the  value  of  the 
laboratory  and  of  contact  by  the  student  with  things  as  well  as 
with  ideas.  l '  How  can  a  man  learn  to  know  himself  ? ' '  asked 
Goethe.  ' '  Never  by  thinking,  but  by  doing. ' ' 

Two  purposes  mark  any  intelligent  system  of  training  men ; 
first,  to  enable  men  to  know  themselves,  and,  second,  to  enable 
them  to  find  themselves.  Schooling  of  the  conventional  kind 
leaves  out  most  of  the  senses  in  the  training  scheme;  it  is 
devised  for  inert  masses  of  pupils;  its  tools  are  printer's  ink 
and  the  teacher's  voice.  President  Eliot  has  pointed  out  the 
defect  in  making  our  schools  for  "listening." 

This  is  surely  a  stock-taking  period  in  business,  in  politics, 
in  education.  The  employer  has  been  complaining  of  the 
product  of  the  public  school.  "We  find  that  nearly  half  the 
school  children  of  the  land  drop  out  before  they  even  complete 
the  grammar  grades.  We  find,  too,  that  our  system  of 
secondary  education,  admirable  though  it  is  in  many  respects, 
is  ministering  mostly  to  the  four  per  cent,  or  so  of  its  pupils 
who  go  to  college,  and  has  scarcely  faced  the  life-work  needs 
of  the  vast  majority  who  must  go  to  work.  This  dropping  out 
of  school,  therefore,  of  so  many  unprepared  boys  and  girls  at 
a  time  when  they  should  be  laying  the  foundations  of  voca- 
tional efficiency,  is  now  recognized  as  a  national  calamity. 
Many  thorough  investigations,  one  by  the  United  States 
Bureau  of  Labor,  have  shown  that  pressure  of  circumstances 


34  EDUCATION   AND   EFFICIENT   LIVING. 

accounts  for  only  about  one  third  of  this  exodus  from  school 
to  work.  Two  thirds  could  have  remained  to  further  fit  them- 
selves if  opportunity  and  intelligent  organization  could  have 
been  provided. 

The  abrupt  ending  of  school  influence  for  so  many  on  the 
fourteenth  birthday  is  only  one  of  a  train  of  evils.  Dropping 
out  as  they  do,  their  entrance  into  working  life  is  no  less 
deplorable.  They  do  not  knew  anything  about  the  work  they 
go  into  and  they  leave  one  job  for  another,  just  as  they  left 
school.  Few  have  any  idea  of  preparing  themselves  for  a 
career.  They  drift  until  manhood  responsibilities  are  upon 
them;  then  it  is  too  late  to  prepare  for  anything.  It  is  now 
known  that  a  large  part  of  the  misemployment  and  unemploy- 
ment problems  can  be  traced  to  these  early  blind  driftings  in 
the  uncharted  employments.  The  school  has  failed  to  connect 
with  the  vocational  needs  of  its  pupils,  has  failed  to  take  into 
account  the  probable  careers  and  experiences  of  most  of  its 
children.  On  the  other  hand,  the  kind  of  work  these  young 
people  go  into  is  not  of  a  sort  to  develop  them,  to  train  them, 
or  make  anything  out  of  them.  Therefore  both  school  and  job 
are  now  up  for  investigation.  President  Eliot  has  spoken  of 
the  "life-career  motive"  in  education.  Any  education  which 
fails  to  build  on  this  most  fundamental  purpose,  or  fails  to 
arouse  an  interest  in  it,  does  not  belong  to  our  militant  age 
of  effort  and  service.  Any  occupation  which  does  not  deepen 
and  enlarge  this  purpose  and  motive,  which  does  not  in  some 
way  offer  both  a  life  and  a  career,  is  one  which  probably  needs 
the  attention  of  public  opinion  and  the  legislature. 

School  and  work,  then,  must  minister  to  the  life-career 
motive,  to  the  bread-winning  effectiveness  of  our  workers  and 
citizens.  The  movement  for  vocational  guidance  has  grown 
out  of  a  deep  recognition  of  the  price  society  pays  for  the 
aimless  driftings,  the  economic  waste,  and  the  social  wreckage 
attributable  to  the  unbridged  chasm  between  school  and  work, 
to  the  unprotected  and  unguided  transition  from  school  life  to 
working  life.  Vocational  guidance  looks  upon  both  school  and 
shop  as  means  for  investing  the  capacities  of  the  young  people 


MEYER  BLOOMFIELD.  35 

to  their  own  and  society's  utmost  good.  Investment,  not  ex- 
ploitation, is  the  goal.  The  child's  good,  and  the  community's 
good  must  be  placed  above  all  else. 

Experience  has  demonstrated  that  where  a  school  looks  in- 
telligently to  the  life-career  there  is  hardly  any  dropping-out 
problem.  The  employer,  who  fulfills  his  responsibility,  re- 
duces his  losses,  which  in  many  an  establishment  amounts  to  a 
turn-over  of  employees  every  four  or  five  years.  If  education 
does  not  lead  to  self -discovery,  what  else  does  it  do?  In 
this  desideratum  the  technical  schools  have  been  quite  fortu- 
nate. They  have  greatly  aided  their  students  to  find  them- 
selves. Are  they  all  living  up  to  their  opportunities  and  their 
privileges?  There  is  no  little  danger  of  complacency  and 
backsliding  on  their  part.  Let  me  say  that  vocational  train- 
ing does  not  in  itself  carry  any  guarantee  that  it  will  not 
deteriorate  into  abstractions  and  academic  routine,  that  it 
will  not  lose  touch  with  reality.  With  the  doors  of  our 
technical-training  schools  wide  open,  as  they  should  be,  there 
is  no  assurance  that  fitness  alone  will  seek  admission.  Mass 
instruction  here,  as  in  the  academic  schools,  is  prevalent.  The 
time  for  ' '  hand-picked  engineers "  as  a  professor  in  one  of  our 
technical  schools  has  phrased  it,  has  gone  by.  Never  was 
greater  need  than  now  to  formulate  standards  and  to  organize 
a  selective  process  for  the  future  engineers.  This  plea  is  made 
not  so  much  for  the  benefit  of  the  schools  and  the  profession, 
as  for  the  young  men  who  may  be  misled  into  wasting  years 
on  preparation  for  pursuits  for  which  they  are  not  fitted  and 
in  which  they  never  can  be  happy. 

The  student  of  the  vocations  marvels  at  the  unbusinesslike 
hiring  of  men  in  various  establishments.  The  employment 
manager  is  supposed  to  be  the  mind-reader  and  fortune-teller 
of  the  firm.  If  his  guesses  turn  out  well  he  holds  on  to  his 
place.  How  many  firms  can  you  recall  which  have  drawn  up 
specifications  of  what  they  need  in  the  way  of  employees, 
drawn  up  their  requirements  so  definitely  as  to  exclude  auto- 
matically those  who  cannot  succeed?  "Trial  and  error"  is 
the  prevailing  method,  with  all  the  waste  and  discouragement 
this  involves  to  all  parties  concerned. 


36  EDUCATION   AND   EFFICIENT   LIVING. 

I  have  not  observed  that  the  engineering  callings  have 
framed  their  demands  so  that  parent,  teacher,  and  prospective 
applicant  can  base  a  choice  of  occupation  on  the  data  set  forth. 
Nor  have  I  found  a  surplus  of  accessible,  vital  information 
concerning  the  new  and  most  promising  developments  in  the 
engineering  pursuits,  chosen  to  direct  attention  to  the  less 
crowded  departments.  Many  of  us  believe  that  the  engineer, 
the  technically-trained  man-,  will  more  and  more  rank  with  the 
most  socially-advanced  agencies  for  the  promotion  of  human 
welfare,  with  the  practitioner  in  preventive  medicine  and  the 
trained  philanthropic  agent.  We  have  only  to  look  over  the 
contributions  to  public  health,  comfort  and  efficiency,  made  by 
our  institutions  of  applied  science  during  the  half  century  just 
passed,  to  realize  that  what  has  been  accomplished  for  public 
sanitation,  protection  of  the  milk,  water,  and  food  supply, 
factory  hygiene,  ventilation  of  public  buildings,  and  elimina- 
tion of  polluting  wastes  is  only  prophetic  of  what  is  yet  to 
come.  Indeed  already  from  the  field  of  the  efficiency  engineer 
has  come,  perhaps,  the  most  important  message  since  ma- 
chinery came  to  do  man's  work,  since  the  factory  system  re- 
placed the  home  as  a  producing  center.  Messrs.  Taylor,  Gil- 
breth,  Brandeis,  and  others  have  made  the  nation  think.  And 
in  the  field  of  efficiency  engineering  I  find  an  analogy  for 
what  vocational  guidance  regards  as  the  true  function  of  the 
school  and  of  education.  The  teachers  are  the  functional 
foremen,  the  courses  of  study  are  the  planned  and  routed 
tasks.  The  aim  of  all  these  forces  should  be  to  produce  an 
individual  equipped  for  the  scientific  management  of  all  his 
endowments  and  resources;  whose  faculties  are  organized  for 
economy  of  effort  in  reaching  results,  ease  in  exertion,  persist- 
ence in  traveling  toward  the  set  goal,  and  vision  to  understand 
his  relationship  to  his  fellows. 


THE   ENGINEER   AS   A   MANAGER. 

BY    H.    L.    GANTT, 

Consulting  Engineer,  New  York  City. 

The  industrial  developments  of  the  past  fifty  years  have 
been  so  great  as  to  modify  profoundly,  if  not  to  revolutionize 
the  methods  of  living  in  the  whole  civilized  world.  If  we  will 
compare  the  conditions  and  methods  of  living  just  previous 
to  the  Civil  War  with  those  of  today,  and  itemize  these  differ- 
ences, we  shall  find  that  they  are  due  in  a  large  measure  to  the 
development  in  the  mechanic  arts. 

Fifty  years  ago  the  peaceful  methods  of  accumulating 
wealth  were  substantially  those  that  had  been  in  vogue  since 
the  dawn  of  history,  and  consisted  of  buying,  transporting 
and  selling,  with  the  lending  of  money  to  finance  such  under- 
takings. Ancient  Persia,  for  instance,  owed  its  great  wealth 
largely  to  its  position,  by  which  it  controlled  all  the  trade 
routes  between  India  and  China  on  the  one  hand,  and  Europe 
and  Africa  on  the  other. 

"When,  however,  the  Greeks  extended  their  colonies  along 
the  shores  of  Asia  Minor  to  the  eastern  end  of  the  Black  Sea, 
and  finally  even  founded  settlements  at  the  eastern  end  of  the 
Caspian  Sea,  the  conditions  began  to  change.  Persia  no 
longer  had  a  monopoly  of  the  trade  between  the  East  and  the 
West,  for  the  Greeks  had  a  nearly  continuous  water  route  by 
means  of  the  rivers  of  southern  Russia  to  their  markets  on  the 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean.  The  competition  of  a  cheaper 
route  soon  awakened  the  Persians  to  their  danger,  which  they 
tried  to  avert  by  the  conquest  of  Greece.  Failing  in  this  they 
were  themselves  subdued  by  the  Greeks,  and  the  greatness  of 
Persia  passed  away. 

A  continuous  series  of  similar  illustrations  might  be  cited, 
bringing  us  down  to  the  present  time,  where  a  situation  simi- 

37 


38  THE   ENGINEER   AS   A   MANAGER. 

lar  to  that  between  Persia  and  Greece  has  arisen  between 
England  and  Germany. 

The  other  time-honored  method  of  accumulating  wealth  is 
that  of  Rob  Boy:  "They  should  take  who  have  the  power, 
and  they  should  keep  who  can."  This  method  is  not  only 
just  as  much  in  vogue  today  as  when  the  tribes  living  in  the 
mountains  made  excursions  into  the  valleys  and  carried  off 
the  corn  and  cattle  of  their  more  thrifty  neighbors,  but  it 
seems  to  be  quite  as  respectable  and  to  be  carried  on  with  far 
less  personal  risk. 

In  the  past  these  two  methods  have  as  a  rule  been  operated 
by  different  classes  of  people  who  were  in  the  main  hostile. 
In  recent  times,  however,  when  the  physical  methods  of  Rob 
Roy  have  been  suppressed,  more  subtle  and  effective  ones 
have  been  developed,  which  apparently  do  not  violate  our 
time-honored  laws,  and  which  can  be  successfully  operated  in 
connection  with  legitimate  trade. 

Thus  the  already  wealthy  traders  and  bankers  have  been 
able  to  add  to  their  methods  those  of  the  outlaw,  and  to  become 
in  the  words  of  the  great  Senator  Dolliver,  whose  untimely 
death  was  such  a  loss  to  the  country,  "the  boldest  set  of 
buccaneers  the  world  ever  saw." 

In  the  past  the  great  traders  individually  exerted  but  small 
influence  over  the  markets  in  which  they  bought  and  sold, 
and  prices  were  governed  by  supply  and  demand.  Today, 
however,  in  this  country  at  least,  the  great  trusts  are  in  many 
cases  able  to  fix  both  the  buying  and  selling  price  of  the 
commodities  in  which  they  deal.  A  dawning  realization  of 
this  fact  was  the  reason  for  the  enactment  of  the  Sherman 
anti-trust  law,  and  is  now  the  strongest  force  behind  the  agi- 
tation for  a  decrease  in  the  tariff. 

Further  the  enormous  wealth  thus  accumulated  has  enabled 
the  possessors  in  many  cases  to  become  absolute  owners  of 
the  sources  of  wealth  and  the  means  of  transportation,  and 
their  training  to  get  as  much  as  possible  and  to  give  as  little 
as  possible  in  return  is  doing  much  to  increase  the  present 
industrial  unrest  in  the  world 


H.  L.  GANTT.  39 

While  these  developments  have  been  taking  place,  others 
have  been  going  on  which  up  to  this  time  have  produced  even 
greater  results. 

The  invention  of  the  steam  engine,  by  furnishing  cheap 
power,  made  possible  the  factory  system  of  today;  but  it  was 
nearly  a  century  before  the  engine  was  sufficiently  perfected 
and  the  mechanic  arts  sufficiently  developed,  to  make  the 
factory  system  very  profitable  on  a  large  scale. 

Although  the  advance  of  scientific  knowledge  was  very 
marked  during  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  and 
the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth,  there  was  a  strong  feeling 
that  knowledge  for  its  own  sake  was  the  true  ideal  to  be 
striven  for,  and  to  make  any  practical  use  of  it  was  degrad- 
ing. Such  men,  however,  as  Rankine  and  Isherwood  rose 
above  this  prejudice,  and  although  they  showed  the  advantage 
of  applying  scientific  methods  to  mechanical  problems,  and 
especially  to  the  steam  engine,  it  was  not  for  some  years  that 
a  large  enough  body  of  scientifically  educated  men  was  en- 
gaged in  this  work  to  make  any  substantial  progress. 

Soon  after  the  close  of  the  Civil  War  the  need  of  such  a 
body  of  men  was  recognized,  and  schools  were  founded  with 
the  express  object  of  teaching  men  how  to  apply  scientific 
knowledge  to  industrial  problems.  In  a  few  years  the  gradu- 
ates of  these  schools  began  to  make  their  influence  felt,  and 
the  scientific  methods  of  the  engineer  began  to  supplement  the 
empirical  methods  of  the  mechanic. 

Labor-saving  devices  and  automatic  machinery  began  to 
be  developed  that  often  multiplied  many  times  the  power  of 
the  individual  to  produce  wealth,  and  almost  all  the 
machinery  in  use  at  that  time  has  been  improved  and  made 
more  efficient.  In  the  art  of  transportation,  the  steam  loco- 
motive has  been  enormously  enlarged  and  perfected,  while  the 
electric  motor  has  made  possible  the  rapid  transit  of  our 
cities  with  all  that  implies.  The  steamship  of  today  has 
robbed  ocean  travel  of  its  discomforts,  and  cut  in  half  the 
time  between  Europe  and  America.  The  automobile  enables 


40  THE    ENGINEER   AS   A    MANAGES. 

us  to  travel  at  sixty  miles  per  hour  along  country  roads,  and 
the  aeroplane  makes  possible  a  like  speed  through  the  air. 

The  developments  of  electricity  have  been  more  marvellous 
still. 

The  telephone,  the  electric  light,  the  wireless  telegraph,  the 
long  distance  transmission  are  familiar  to  us  all,  but  we 
realize  their  importance^  only  when  we  consider  what  would 
happen  if  they  were  all  destroyed. 

These  facts  which  are  so  well  known  are  typical  of  the 
developments  that  the  engineer  and  the  mechanic  have  been 
making  in  all  shops  and  factories  throughout  the  country, 
and  producing  the  wealth  that  has  so  much  increased  the 
splendor  of  our  great  cities  in  the  last  few  years. 

True  to  his  traditions  of  buying  at  the  lowest  price  and  sell- 
ing at  the  highest,  the  commercial  man  has  continued  to  apply 
these  principles  to  all  his  dealings,  including  the  purchase  of 
labor.  The  combinations,  or  trusts,  derive  their  strength  and 
profit,  not  from  their  ability  to  produce  more  cheaply,  as  was 
at  first  claimed,  but  largely  from  their  ability  to  fix  both  the 
buying  and  the  selling  price. 

The  workmen,  on  their  part,  recognize  these  facts,  and 
realize  that  the  only  effort  to  get  a  greater  reward  for  their 
work  is  one  backed  by  force.  Hence  under  these  methods  of 
doing  business,  the  growth  of  trusts  on  one  side,  and  hostile 
labor  unions  on  the  other,  is  a  natural  development.  Further, 
the  workmen,  realizing  that  they  get  but  a  small  share  of  the 
increase  in  wealth  produced  by  greater  efforts  on  their  part, 
or  by  improved  machinery,  are  not  only  slow  in  exerting 
greater  efforts,  or  adopting  improved  machinery,  but  often 
opposed  to  both.  Thus,  much  of  our  industrial  development 
is  carried  on  under  conditions  where  one  party  and  often 
both  are  hostile  to  such  developments,  for  the  commercial 
man  is  also  often  opposed  to  improved  methods.  Such  meth- 
ods usually  cost  money  to  install,  and  he  being  interested  only 
in  profits,  does  not  see  any  advantage  in  effecting  economies 
if  his  competitor  is  able  ultimately  to  do  the  same.  Thus 
where  the  control  of  a  plant  is  in  the  hands  of  a  man  of  com- 


H.  L.  GANTT.  41 

mercial  instincts  or  training,  there  is  apt  to  be  but  little 
interest  in  effecting  economies  that  cost  money ;  and,  as  many 
of  our  plants  are  under  such  control,  this  condition  is  wide- 
spread. 

Such  a  man  too  often  does  not  appreciate  differences  be- 
tween workmen,  and  groups  them  into  classes  of  uniform  pay, 
thus  discouraging  initiative  in  mechanical  production,  and 
driving  it  into  union  leadership.  Under  such  management 
there  does  not  seem  to  be  any  possible  method  of  harmonizing 
the  interests  of  employer  and  employee,  and  unless  these 
methods  are  modified,  the  industrial  unrest  is  bound  to  in- 
crease, with  results  which  no  one  can  foresee. 

Until  recently  the  engineer  has  regarded  his  work  done, 
when  he  has  developed  an  improved  machine  or  apparatus, 
and  proved  by  operating  it  for  a  short  while  that  its  capacity 
was  all  he  claimed  for  it.  It  has  then  too  often  been  acquired 
by  men  imperfectly  trained  mechanically,  but  who  had  the 
commercial  instinct  highly  developed.  Such  men  usually 
turn  it  over  to  a  "cheap"  man  to  operate,  and  its  main- 
tenance is  nearly  always  looked  after  by  a  second-rate 
mechanic,  for  the  commercial  man  can  seldom  see  why  he 
should  have  a  high-priced  man  doing  repairs. 

The  efficiency  of  the  machine  naturally  decreases,  and  a 
factory  run  on  these  principles  must  necessarily  be  more 
inefficient  still. 

Fortunately  this  condition  is  not  universal,  for  the  advan- 
tage of  having  an  engineer  for  a  manager  has  for  years  been 
recognized  by  some,  and  the  number  of  such  is  increasing. 
This  number  is  not  sufficiently  great,  nor  has  the  engineer 
yet  had  sufficient  training  in  the  art  of  management  to  make 
untrue  the  statement,  which  has  been  so  loudly  proclaimed 
recently,  that  the  majority  of  our  industries  are  very  ineffi- 
ciently managed. 

In  as  much  as  most  factories  are  controlled  by  men  of  com- 
mercial instincts  or  training,  their  gauge  is  necessarily  not 
efficiency,  of  which  they  know  nothing,  but  profits,  of  which 
they  know  a  great  deal. 


42  THE   ENGINEER  AS   A   MANAGER. 

If  we  would  increase  the  efficiency  of  a  plant,  the  problem 
must  be  put  up  to  a  man  who  knows  at  least  what  the  word 
means.  Fortunately  the  man  who  knows  most  about  efficiency 
also  knows  most  not  only  about  the  application  of  science  to 
the  mechanic  arts,  but  also  about  workmen,  by  whose  side  he 
has  obtained  his  knowledge  and  acquired  his  skill  in  the  use 
of  tools.  This  man  is  th,e  engineer.  He  is  the  only  man  who 
spans  the  whole  gap  between  the  capitalist  and  the  workman, 
and  knows  the  mental  attitude  and  necessities  of  each.  It  is 
on  his  shoulders  therefore  that  must  fall  the  burden  of  har- 
monizing their  interests. 

As  said  before  the  engineer  has  too  often  been  content 
when  he  has  built  his  machine  or  plant,  and  his  training  has 
largely  been  confined  to  preparation  for  this  work.  Now, 
however,  when  the  larger  responsibility  of  management 
thrusts  itself  upon  him,  his  education  and  training  should 
include  at  once  the  elements  of  his  new  duties. 

The  greatest  problem  before  us  today  is  not  that  of  de- 
veloping new  and  better  appliances,  but  that  of  properly 
utilizing  those  we  have.  The  recognition  of  this  fact  has 
given  rise  to  the  tremendous  interest  in  the  subject  of  man- 
agement which  has  become  manifest  in  the  last  few  years. 
Interest,  however,  is  not  enough.  Knowledge  must  be  obtained 
before  great  progress  can  be  made. 

The  subject  of  management  may  be  divided  into  three 
groups,  management  of  men,  management  of  machines, 
management  of  materials.  The  one  to  which  the  engineer  has 
given  the  most  study  in  the  past  has  been  the  management 
of  machines.  How  to  care  for  materials  and  to  move  them 
through  the  factory  as  they  are  wanted,  so  that  there  may  be 
no  delay,  has  been  given  but  little  attention.  This  has  often 
been  left  more  or  less  to  chance,  and  it  is  very  seldom  that 
we  can  find  a  proper  system  of  storekeeping  and  routing 
material.  We  almost  never  find  that  material  moves  along 
its  route  according  to  a  prearranged  schedule.  Such  a  sched- 
ule, however,  is  necessary  in  order  to  keep  the  workmen  prop- 
erly employed,  and  we  have  found  that  proper  routing  and 


H.  L.  GANTT.  43 

scheduling  of  material  has  not  only  done  much  to  promote 
harmony  and  efficiency  in  every  shop  in  which  it  has  been 
installed,  but  has  prepared  the  way  for  a  satisfactory  method 
of  managing  men. 

The  men  are  thus  largely  relieved  of  the  innumerable 
annoyances  with  which  they  are  troubled  in  shops  without 
a  proper  system  of  management,  and  where  everything  is 
done  on  the  spur  of  the  moment  by  the  direct  order  of  a 
foreman. 

In  studying  how  to  use  workmen  efficiently,  we  must  recog- 
nize the  fact  that  they  are  just  as  susceptible  to  petty  annoy- 
ances as  their  superiors,  and  that  as  a  rule  they  are  just  as 
anxious  to  take  advantage  of  any  opportunities  that  are 
offered  them,  if  they  are  benefited  by  so  doing.  No  sooner  do 
we,  as  a  rule,  afford  opportunities  for  men  to  show  their 
ability  and  to  advance  themselves,  than  some  begin  to  come  to 
the  front.  We  must  not,  however,  expect  by  any  system  of 
management  to  produce  a  revolution.  If  we  can  put  in  a 
system  by  which  the  workman  is  benefited  and  enabled  to 
utilize  his  powers  to  the  best  advantage,  although  he  will 
gradually  recognize  it,  we  must  not  expect  him  to  do  so  at 
once,  for  his  experience  in  the  past  has  taught  him  that  his 
employer  has  no  interest  in  his  advancement  and  will  give 
him  only  such  compensation  as  he  is  forced  to  give.  Having 
lived  under  such  a  condition  for  years,  which  is  necessarily 
one  of  antagonism  for  his  employer,  time  must  always  elapse 
before  he  will  believe  that  the  opportunities  apparently 
offered  him  are  real. 

If,  however,  the  work  is  done  under  a  properly  trained 
engineer,  who  recognizes  the  advantages  of  proper  coopera- 
tion, and  is  willing  to  share  them  with  the  workmen,  we  have 
no  difficulty  in  ultimately  bringing  him  to  a  proper  frame 
of  mind. 

Our  difficulty  has  been  mainly  with  the  commercial  man, 
who  often  seems  incapable  of  considering  anybody's  interest 
except  his  own,  and  has  not  yet  recognized  that  the  prosperity 
of  all  is  directly  helped  by  the  prosperity  of  each.  As  yet  he 


44  THE   ENGINEEE  AS   A   MANAGEB. 

has  no  idea  of  what  real  cooperation  means.  His  idea  of 
cooperation  is  that  of  the  pack,  or  herd,  whose  cooperation  is 
for  attack  or  defense.  Geo.  W.  Perkins  and  Samuel  Gompers 
are  the  most  prominent  public  advocates  of  this  kind  of 
cooperation,  which  aims  to  spoil  the  outsiders  for  the  benefit 
of  those  in  the  ring. 

For  that  broader  idea  of  cooperation  which  benefits  the 
country  and  people  in  general,  I  refer  you  to  the  address  of 
Hon.  "William  C.  Eedfield,  before  the  National  Democratic 
Club  of  New  York  City  on  January  3,  1912,  printed  as  a  part 
of  the  Congressional  Record.  Mr.  Redfield  recognizes  the 
fact  that  the  civilization  of  today  is  an  industrial  civilization, 
and  that  the  nation  that  first  realizes  this  fact,  and  acts  upon 
it  intelligently  will  put  itself  far  in  advance  of  all  the  others. 

In  as  much  as  it  must  not  be  expected  that  the  commercial 
man  will  thoroughly  understand  this  for  many  years,  it  is 
all  the  more  incumbent  upon  the  engineer  to  assume  the  re- 
sponsibility for  showing  what  true  cooperation  between  em- 
ployer and  employee  means. 

The  great  development  of  what  is  popularly  known  as 
"efficiency  engineering, "  but  what  might  more  properly  be 
called  "management  engineering, "  is  a  recognition  of  the 
readiness  of  men  having  even  a  little  engineering  knowledge  to 
assume  the  new  responsibilities.  The  fact  that  the  movement 
is  still  growing,  although  many  now  engaged  in  it  must  neces- 
sarily be  incompetent,  is  evidence  that  some  good  is  being 
done.  How  much  faster  it  will  grow,  when  all  engaged  in  it 
have  had  a  proper  preparation  for  their  work !  This  prepara- 
tion it  is  the  duty  of  the  engineering  schools  to  give. 

In  as  much,  however,  as  the  peaceful  solution  of  our  indus- 
trial problems  will  bring  far  greater  financial  gain  to  the 
commercial  man  than  to  the  engineer,  it  would  seem  to  be 
to  his  interest  to  finance  liberally  such  engineering  schools 
as  will  undertake  this  work. 

In  the  past,  merchants  and  financiers,  like  nations,  have 
been  ever  ready  to  spend  money  to  fight  their  opponents, 
even  when  they  realized  what  enormous  losses  these  fights 


H.  L.  GANTT. 


45 


involved.  Now,  however,  when  the  way  of  avoiding  such 
fights  becomes  clear,  it  would  seem  logical  for  them  to  invest 
a  small  fraction  of  the  money  needed  for  fighting  in  the  only 
rational  scheme  that  presents  itself  for  the  insurance  of  in- 
dustrial peace  and  cooperation. 


THE   MEN   WHO   SUCCEED   IN   SCIENTIFIC 
MANAGEMENT. 

BY  H.   K.   HATHAWAY, 
Consulting  Engineer,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Perhaps  from  the  subject  it  might  be  expected  that  I  would 
be  able  to  wojk  up  an  instruction  card  that  would  enable  the 
would-be  scientific  manager  to  achieve,  through  following  it, 
immediate  and  unqualified  success.  The  best  I  can  do,  how- 
ever, in  that  direction  is  to  enumerate  what  seem  to  me  to  be 
the  fundamental  elements  which,  when  properly  grouped  and 
combined  in  the  right  proportions  in  an  individual,  enhance 
his  chances  of  success. 
These  qualities  are : 

Steadfastness  of  purpose. 

Common  sense — balance. 

Honesty. 

Tact. 

Enthusiasm. 

Appreciation  of  the  value  of  facts. 

Energy  or  push  (willingness  to  assume  responsibility). 

Experience — training — education. 

Humility. 

Of  the  qualifications  making  up  this  list  it  is  difficult  to 
say  that  any  one  of  them  is  in  all  cases  more  important  than 
another.  Under  varying  circumstances  each  one  of  them  as- 
sumes, at  times,  preeminent  importance. 

STEADFASTNESS  OF  PURPOSE. 

The  man  who  is  easily  discouraged  can  not  hope  for  success 
under  scientific  management.  It  is  to  this  quality  probably 
more  than  to  any  other  that,  after  over  twenty  years  of 
patient,  persistent,  and  uncompromising  struggle,  the  world 

46 


H.  K.  HATHAWAY.  47 

today  recognizes  that  there  is  a  science  of  management,  and 
honors  Dr.  Taylor  as  its  founder.  With  dogged  perseverance 
he  met  and  overcame  what  to  most  men  would  have  been  over- 
whelming opposition,  heart-breaking  ridicule,  and  utter  lack 
of  sympathy  or  even  understanding  from  those  in  whose  inter- 
est he  labored.  This  quality  is  essential  to  success,  both  in  the 
man  who  desires  to  apply  scientific  management  to  the  run- 
ning of  his  business,  and  in  those  who  undertake  the  work  of 
its  installation.  The  former,  as  will  be  attested  by  owners 
and  managers,  to  the  management  of  whose  business  the  prin- 
ciples of  Scientific  Management  have  been  successfully  ap- 
plied, will  have  many  dark  moments  when  the  undertaking 
seems  hopeless,  and  when  the  strain  imposed  upon  his  faith 
by  the  criticism  and  opposition  of  his  associates  and  his  em- 
ployees is  almost  beyond  endurance;  at  such  times  steadfast- 
ness of  purpose  is  the  only  thing  that  prevents  the  failure  of 
the  undertaking  and  the  loss  of  months  of  endeavor. 

There  will  be  times  when  it  is  undertaken  to  put  into  opera- 
tion certain  mechanism  essential  to  the  application  of  the 
principles  of  scientific  management  that  the  scheme  devised 
will  fail  to  work,  not  once  but  repeatedly ;  under  such  circum- 
stances the  average  man  would  say :  ' '  we  have  tried  it  and  it 
won't  work,"  and  would  complacently  return  to  the  old 
method,  or  proceed  to  try  some  other  scheme  which  would 
in  turn  meet  with  the  same  fate.  It  is  here  that  steadfastness 
of  purpose  is  needed  in  the  man  upon  whom  depends  the 
development  and  installation  of  the  new  system.  As  often  as 
it  fails  to  work  he  must  straighten  it  out,  strengthen  the  weak 
points,  and  start  over  again,  persistently  and  patiently  keep- 
ing at  it  until  finally  the  scheme  works. 

In  such  cases  it  is  usually  impossible  to  find  any  specific 
reason  why  the  scheme  should  work  finally  any  more  than  the 
first  time  it  is  started,  and  in  my  own  experience  I  have  been 
amazed  to  find  something  that  had  given  so  much  trouble  to 
get  going,  that  I  almost  despaired  of  a  successful  outcome,  all 
at  once,  for  no  apparent  reason,  commence  to  work  smoothly 
and  easily.  The  reason  for  this  is  probably  that  there  are 


48  THE    MEN    WHO   SUCCEED. 

innumerable  kinks  and  obstacles  so  minute  that  they  are 
almost  invisible  which  become  smoothed  out  and  removed  as 
all  concerned  gain  a  better  understanding  of  the  scheme. 
This  is  somewhat  analogous  to  getting  a  new  engine  or  other 
piece  of  machinery  worked  down  to  a  bearing. 

The  fact  that  it  is  easier  to  "let  a  thing  go"  than  to  make 
it  go  is,  in  many  undertakings,  accountable  for  their  having 
an  unsuccessful  outcome. 

COMMON  SENSE — BALANCE. 

In  the  last  analysis  scientific  management  is  the  systematic 
and  consistent  application  of  common  sense.  It  is  nothing 
more  or  less  than  common  sense : 

To  plan  what  is  to  be  done,  before  doing  it. 

To  systematically  keep  tools  and  machines  in  the  best  work- 
ing conditions. 

To  ascertain  what  is  the  best  and  adopt  it  as  a  standard. 

The  man  who  does  not  use  common  sense  in  connection 
with  scientific  management  has  little  chance  of  success.  One 
must  have  the  right  sense  of  proportion  and  the  proper  per- 
spective in  straightening  out  the  numerous  troubles  and  dif- 
ficulties that  arise,  both  during  the  development  stage  of  the 
application  of  scientific  management  to  any  business,  and  in 
the  operation  of  the  business  to  which  it  has  been  applied. 

This  qualification  one  would  naturally  expect  to  be  pos- 
sessed by  a  majority  of  men,  yet  it  is  amazing  to  see  how 
many  men,  often  brilliant  and  exceptionally  able,  fail  to  suc- 
ceed simply  because  they  lack  common  sense  while  men  of 
rather  mediocre  talent  succeed  as  a  result  of  its  possession. 

HONESTY. 

Any  system  of  management  that  is  not  honest  is  not  sci- 
entific management,  nor  has  the  man  who  is  not  honest — with 
himself  as  well  as  those  with  whom  he  is  associated — any  place 
in  it. 

The  old  style  of  management  bred  deceit — largely  as  the 


H.  K.  HATHAWAY.  49 

result  of  ignorance.  For  example:  the  workman  constantly 
endeavored  to  keep  his  foreman  or  his  employer  from  know- 
ing how  much  work  could  be  done  in  a  given  time.  The  fore- 
man in  turn  was  expected  by  the  management  to  know  not 
only  more  than  they  did  about  the  practical  end  of  the  busi- 
ness, but  more  than  any  or  all  of  his  workmen,  and  it  often 
took  a  pretty  stiff  " bluff"  on  his  part  to  make  them  think  he 
knew  as  much  as  he  knew  they  expected  him  to. 

The  man  who  is  to  succeed  under  scientific  management 
in  any  capacity  must  not  be  afraid  to  admit  his  own  mistakes 
and  to  correct  them,  nor  must  he  make  pretense  to  know  things 
that  he  does  not.  Workmen  appreciate  honesty  probably  more 
than  any  other  quality  in  the  men  under  whom  they  work,  and 
it  has  been  my  experience  that  they  meet  honesty  and  frank- 
ness with  honesty  and  frankness,  but  that  deceitful  practices 
in  dealing  with  them  engenders  deceit  upon  their  part.  I 
have  seen  a  number  of  promising  men  meet  with  failure  in 
connection  with  scientific  management  simply  because  they 
were  not  honest  with  themselves.  There  is  no  place  under 
scientific  management  for  the  ''foxy"  men  or  the  ones  who 
depend  upon  ' '  bluff ' '  to  get  them  by. 

TACT. 

This  qualification  must  not  be  confounded  with  vacillation. 
The  men  in  responsible  positions  under  scientific  management 
must  be  firm  and  aggressive,  but  they  must  also  be  able  to 
determine  when  such  a  course  is  desirable — knowing  when  to 
insist  and  when  not  to  do  so.  It  is  found,  usually,  that  in 
dealing  with  the  higher  officials  this  qualification  is  called  into 
use  to  a  much  greater  extent  than  when  dealing  with  foremen 
and  workmen. 

By  tact  I  mean  the  ability  to  present  things  to  men  in  such 
a  way  as  to  interest  them  and  secure  their  enthusiastic  cooper- 
ation, whereas  if  the  same  thing  were  presented  in  a  slightly 
different  manner  it  would  result  in  incurring  opposition  and 
animosity.  The  old  saying  that  "it  is  not  so  much  what  one 


50  THE   MEN    WHO   SUCCEED. 

says  as  the  way  he  says  it"  is  quite  true  in  the  matter  of 
presenting  totally  new  and  radical  ideas  to  men  who  are  to  be 
affected  by  their  adoption.  It  is  perfectly  possible,  for  ex- 
ample, to  give  an  order  in  such  a  manner  that  the  one  to  whom 
it  is  given  will  feel  insulted,  yet  the  same  order  may  be  given 
in  a  manner  just  as  unequivocal,  but  in  a  perfectly  courteous 
way. 

Avoidance  of  misunderstandings  can  be  accomplished 
through  being  specific  and  definite  in  all  of  one's  dealings 
with  others,  and  would  also  overcome,  in  many  instances,  the 
necessity  for  the  employment  of  what  is  commonly  called 
''tact." 

ENTHUSIASM. 

An  absolute  belief  in  scientific  management  as  an  unquali- 
fied agency  of  good  for  all  concerned  is  a  prime  requisite,  and 
one  which  the  man  endeavoring  to  apply  scientific  manage- 
ment must  possess  in  order  to  inspire  others  with  confidence, 
and  to  gain  the  hearty  cooperation  necessary  to  success. 

Enthusiasm  is  the  force  that  must  be  depended  upon  to 
overcome  inertia  and  to  buoy  up  the  spirits  of  all  concerned 
when  progress  seems  hopelessly  slow,  and  everything  seems 
to  go  wrong. 

APPRECIATION  OF  THE  VALUE  OF  FACTS. 
The  first  principle  of  scientific  management  as  enunciated 
by  Mr.  Taylor  is  the  development  of  a  science  in  the  place  of 
' '  rule  of  thumb ' '  or  traditional  knowledge.  Unless  the  one  who 
is  undertaking  to  apply  the  principles  of  scientific  manage- 
ment possesses  this  qualification,  he  will,  in  the  first  place,  be 
unable  to  appreciate  the  value  of  this  first  great  principle,  as 
well  as  being  incapable  of  utilizing  the  science  after  it  had 
been  developed.  Perhaps  no  other  thing  has  stood  so  much 
in  the  way  of  industrial  advancement  as  the  lack  of  this  single 
qualification.  Innumerable  illustrations  might  be  given  on 
this  point,  but  it  would  take  too  much  time  to  go  into  it  any 
further. 


H.  K.  HATHAWAY. 


51 


ENERGY  OR  PUSH. 

This  qualification  is  as  essential  in  attaining  success  under 
scientific  management  as  it  is  in  connection  with  any  other 
undertaking.  In  developing  and  applying  the  system  of  sci- 
entific management  to  any  business,  the  man  who  is  directing 
the  work  must  see  that  real  progress  is  constantly  being  made 
at  every  point.  He  must  be  willing  to  take  the  initiative,  and 
to  assume  responsibility,  putting  his  shoulder  to  the  wheel  at 
every  point  that  lags,  and  encouraging  by  example  as  well  as 
by  precept  those  whom  he  undertakes  to  direct. 

EXPERIENCE,  TRAINING,  AND  EDUCATION. 

A  college  education  is,  other  things  being  equal,  of  un- 
doubted value  to  the  man  who  identifies  himself  with  scien- 
tific management,  either  in  the  management  of  an  industry 
in  which  this  type  of  management  has  been  installed,  or  as  an 
engineer  in  working  out  its  application  to  various  industries. 

Practical  training,  however,  such  as  can  only  be  acquired 
through  starting  as  a  workman  in  the  shop  and  progressing 
to  the  position  of  gang  boss,  foreman,  etc.,  is,  even  in  the  case 
of  a  college  trained  man,  an  absolute  essential.  Without  this 
sort  of  training  the  graduate  of  an  engineering  school  is  of 
little  use  under  scientific  management,  and,  until  he  has  ac- 
quired it,  it  is  not  fair — either  to  him  or  to  those  who  would 
be  under  him — to  put  him  in  a  responsible  position  where  the 
direction  of  men  devolves  upon  him. 

In  speaking  of  practical  training  I  do  not  mean  working 
a  part  of  one  or  two  summer  vacations  in  a  shop,  but  a  suffi- 
cient time  to  master  a  trade — in  a  machine  shop  from  two  to 
three  years.  Not  only  long  enough  to  acquire  manual  pro- 
ficiency, but  long  enough  to  become  acquainted  with  work- 
men, to  know  their  point  of  view,  to  acquire  a  respect  for 
them,  and  to  lose  any  unwarranted  feeling  of  superiority. 

Just  as  the  college  graduate  is  handicapped  if  he  lacks 
practical  training,  so  is  the  practical  man  who  has  not  had 
an  opportunity  to  go  to  college  handicapped.  Either  one, 


52  THE    MEN    WHO   SUCCEED. 

however,  can  overcome  his  handicap  if  he  only  is  willing  to 
make  the  necessary  sacrifice  in  order  to  do  so. 

The  judgment  and  foresight  that  enables  one  to  get  results 
without  a  pitched  battle,  to  start  at  the  source  in  correcting 
an  evil  or  in  effecting  an  improvement  that  is  to  be  perma- 
nent, can  only  be  had  as  a  result  of  experience  of  a  practical 
nature.  As  a  matter  of  fact  most  of  the  other  qualifications 
that  make  for  success  in  this  line  are,  to  some  considerable 
extent,  the  outcome  of  training  and  education. 

HUMILITY. 

The  writer  has  seen  a  number  of  promising  men  fail  com- 
pletely, or  jeopardize  their  chances  of  success  through  de- 
veloping a  case  of  swelled  head.  Humility  does  not  necessitate 
being  a  cringing  sycophant,  willing  to  subserve  one's  own 
will  and  convictions  to  the  whims  and  opinions  of  others  for 
the  purpose  of  temporarily  gaining  their  good  graces,  but  it 
is  the  opposite  of  the  sort  of  "bull-headed"  ignorance  that 
leads  a  man  to  believe  that  he  "knows  it  all." 

It  is  the  lack  of  this  spirit  of  humility  that  leads  some 
men,  when  placed  in  positions  of  authority,  to  assume  an  air 
of  superiority  toward  those  working  under  them,  and  to  dis- 
regard the  laws  of  decency  and  courtesy  that  they  observe 
when  dealing  with  those  under  whom  they  work. 

The  great  discoveries  of  science,  and  the  inventions  that 
have  added  so  much  to  the  world's  advancement  have  not 
been  made  by  men  who  knew  it  all. 

The  more  one  learns  the  more  it  should  be  apparent  how 
vastly  much  more  there  is  to  be  learned,  and  this  must  be 
the  constant  frame  of  mind  of  the  man  who  is  to  succeed 
under  scientific  management.  He  must  size  up  his  own  short- 
comings and  regard  with  sympathy  those  whose  opportuni- 
ties have  been  limited,  and  must  have  respect  for  the  opinions 
and  knowledge  of  others,  even  in  the  case  of  the  humblest 
worker. 


H.  K.  HATHAWAY.  53 

MEASURE  OF  SUCCESS. 

Of  course  there  are  various  degrees  of  success  under  sci- 
entific management.  There  is,  for  example,  the  degree  of 
success  achieved  by  Mr.  Taylor  and  the  men  such  as  Mr.  Carl 
G.  Barth  and  Mr.  H.  L.  Gantt  who  have  been  closely  associ- 
ated with  him  in  his  work.  This  is  the  type  of  success  for 
which  the  man  making  the  application  of  scientific  manage- 
ment to  various  industries,  seeks. 

On  the  other  hand,  we  have  the  success  of  those  working  in 
various  capacities  in  the  plants  where  scientific  management 
is  being  practised,  and  who  owe  their  success  to  its  influence 
and  the  opportunities  that  it  has  brought  out.  A  few  cases 
of  this  sort  that  have  come  under  the  writer's  observation 
may  be  interesting. 

During  the  past  month  two  men,  both  of  whom  started  in 
the  same  shop — run  under  scientific  management — as  machin- 
ists, secured  positions  paying  them  $50.00  per  week,  whereas 
a  few  years  before  they  had  earned  but  machinists '  pay. 
These  men  had  been  promoted  successively  from  workmen  to 
functional  foremen  in  the  shop,  and  then  to  the  planning 
department.  The  opportunities  that  came  to  them  were  the 
direct  result  of  their  training  and  development  under  scien- 
tific management. 

Under  scientific  management  the  ability  and  worth  of  each 
man  is  brought  out  and  recognized,  whereas,  under  the  old 
type  of  management,  "bluff"  frequently  masquerades,  un- 
detected, as  the  real  thing. 

A  few  years  ago  a  concern  employing  about  three  hundred 
people  started  to  install  a  system  of  scientific  management, 
and  at  that  time  there  was  employed,  in  charge  of  their  ship- 
ping department,  a  man  who  had  not  attracted  any  especial 
attention  except  as  an  efficient  shipping  clerk,  in  which  posi- 
tion his  employer  would  probably  have  kept  him  on  account 
of  his  handling  his  job  well.  This  department  showed  up  so 
favorably  in  comparison  with  others  in  the  plant,  that  the 
consulting  engineer  directing  the  development  of  the  new 
system  persuaded  the  management  to  place  this  man  in  active 


54  THE   MEN   WHO   SUCCEED. 

charge  of  certain  features  of  the  work,  gradually  increasing 
his  scope,  until  finally,  when  the  new  system  had  been  fully 
developed,  the  management  realized  that  he  was  the  real 
superintendent  of  the  plant,  and  made  him  so  in  name  as  well 
as  in  fact.  They  had  formerly  had  a  superintendent  in  name 
only.  Incidentally  the  old  superintendent  was  not  injured  at 
all,  having  assumed  during  the  period  of  development  duties 
for  which  he  had  a  natural  inclination  and  for  which  he  was 
better  fitted. 

It  is  not  at  all  uncommon  for  laborers  to  become  mechanics 
in  plants  run  under  scientific  management,  nor  for  the 
mechanics  whom  these  men  succeed,  to  become  functional 
foremen. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  cases  that  has  come  under  the 
writer's  observation  is  that  of  a  laborer  who  became  first  a 
drill  press  hand,  then  an  all  round  machine  hand,  and  finally 
a  gang  boss.  The  surprising  feature  in  this  case  is  that  when 
this  man  first  came  under  scientific  management  he  could 
scarcely  write — could  not  add  1  1/4"  to  15/16". 

These  are  only  a  few  of  a  vast  number  of  cases  that  could 
be  cited,  but  they  serve  to  show  that  scientific  management  is 
not  only  a  good  thing  for  the  employer  but  for  the  employee 
as  well. 


THE  PLACE  OF  THE  COLLEGE  IN  COLLECTING 
AND  CONSERVING  THE  DATA  OF  SCIEN- 
TIFIC MANAGEMENT. 

BY   WILFRED   LEWIS, 
President  of  the  Tabor  Mfg.  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

By  scientific  management  is  understood  that  type  of  man- 
agement which  is  made  to  rest  upon  certain  well-defined  prin- 
ciples, in  the  application  of  whic1!  the  highest  efficiency  in 
human  labor  is  attainable.  Mr.  Taylor  has  laid  down  four 
fundamental  principles  of  management  as  follows : 

The  development  of  a  true  science. 

The  scientific  selection  of  the  workman. 

His  scientific  education  and  development. 

Intimate  friendly  relations  between  the  management  and 
the  men. 

These  principles  have  been  expanded  by  other  writers  into 
many  more,  but  in  their  application  to  any  given  line  of  work, 
the  development  of  the  science  leads  to  vast  accumulations  of 
data  which  must  be  classified  and  arranged  to  be  available 
for  immediate  use  when  needed,  and  the  question  suggested 
by  my  subject  is:  In  what  way  can  the  college  be  made  to 
collect  and  conserve  the  data  of  scientific  management? 

Hitherto  these  data  have  been  accumulated  at  enormous 
expense,  and  their  possession  in  the  hands  of  different  indi- 
viduals or  companies  has  meant  practically  the  doing  of  the 
same  work  with  slight  variations  again  and  again,  simply 
because  there  has  been  no  common  depository  of  the  data  ob- 
tained. If  a  true  science  in  management  is  really  attainable, 
there  must  be  a  common  pool  into  which  the  rivulets  of  in- 
formation may  flow,  and  out  of  which  broad  streams  of  knowl- 
edge can  be  drawn.  The  mere  accumulation  of  data  without 
intelligent  classification  and  arrangement  counts  for  little, 

55 


56        CONSERVING   DATA   OF   SCIENTIFIC    MANAGEMENT. 

and  this  fact  was  borne  in  upon  me  very  forcibly  when,  after 
great  diligence  in  the  accumulation  of  certain  records,  it 
became  more  expedient  to  make  new  ones  than  to  attempt  to 
find  what  was  wanted  in  such  a  heterogeneous  mass  of  details. 

To  a  certain  extent  the  scientific  selection  of  the  workman 
can  be  studied  in  our  colleges,  and,  by  introspection,  students 
can  obtain  very  helpful  suggestions  as  to  the  career  best 
suited  to  their  abilities;  but  the  scientific  education  and  de- 
velopment of  the  workman,  and  the  intimate  friendly  rela- 
tions between  the  management  and  the  men,  when  applied  to 
teachers  as  managers  and  to  students  as  workmen,  takes  on 
an  unusual  significance  which  may  well  arrest  the  attention 
of  thinking  men. 

In  modern  industry,  to  which  these  principles  are  generally 
applied,  the  product  is  some  material  thing,  the  output  of 
which  is  to  be  increased  for  the  benefit  of  the  labor  employed, 
the  management  which  directs  it,  and  the  public  which  con- 
sumes it ;  but  in  the  college,  the  product  is  the  workman  him- 
self, a  living  force  fired  with  the  energy  of  youth  and  full  of 
promise  to  himself  and  all  the  world  beside.  The  molding  of 
this  material  for  the  market  which  awaits  it,  or  the  develop- 
ment of  young  men  fitted  for  the  battle  of  life,  is  surely  an 
industry  of  preeminent  importance,  and  it  can  hardly  be 
doubted  that  the  place  of  the  college  as  an  institution  for  col- 
lecting and  conserving  the  talents  of  the  rising  generation  for 
the  best  uses  of  the  world  depends  more  upon  the  scientific 
management  it  displays  than  upon  anything  else. 

I  am  not  sure  that  Mr.  Taylor  had  in  mind  the  college  as 
a  factory  for  the  development  of  men  when  he  framed  his 
four  great  underlying  principles  of  management,  but  he  has 
always  contended  that  there  were  no  exceptions  to  their  appli- 
cation, and  I  am  inclined  to  think  the  up-to-date  college  must 
not  only  be  alive  to  the  importance  of  scientific  management, 
but  it  must  also  absorb  and  disseminate  the  principles  upon 
which  its  own  efficiency  and  that  of  its  alumni  can  be  built 
up  and  maintained. 

Scientific  management  has  hitherto  been  considered  chiefly 


WILFKED  LEWIS.  57 

as  a  means  for  increasing  the  products  of  labor  in  industrial 
operations,  and  as  such  it  is  known  to  include  the  wage 
worker,  the  employer,  and  the  consumer,  in  its  benefits.  If 
"he  who  maketh  two  blades  of  grass  to  grow  where  but  one 
grew  before"  is  a  public  benefactor,  what  can  be  said  of  him 
who  lights  the  way  for  every  worker  to  vastly  increase  his 
output  and  so  raises  the  standard  of  living  throughout  the 
civilized  world? 

It  matters  not  whether  the  principles  enunciated  are  new 
or  old  if  they  are  made  to  bear  fruit  as  living  forces,  and 
although  scientific  management  is  a  new  term  for  the  general 
development  of  all  industry,  it  is  frankly  admitted  by  its 
chief  exponent  to  have  been  well  established  for  centuries  in 
certain  limited  fields,  and  the  following  extract  from  the 
"Meditations  of  Marcus  Aurelius"  shows  that  he  was  alive  to 
the  wastefulness  of  misdirected  effort  nearly  eighteen  hundred 
years  ago. 

"They  will  say  commonly,  meddle  not  with  many  things,  if  thou  wilt 
live  cheerfully.  Certainly  there  is  nothing  better  than  for  a  man  to 
confine  himself  to  necessary  actions;  to  such  and  so  many  only,  as 
reason  in  a  creature  that  knows  itself  born  for  society,  will  command 
and  enjoin.  This  will  not  only  procure  that  cheerfulness,  which  from 
the  goodness,  but  that  also,  which  from  the  paucity  of  actions  doth 
usually  proceed.  For  since  it  is  so,  that  most  of  these  things,  which 
we  either  speak  or  do,  are  unnecessary;  if  a  man  shall  cut  them  off,  it 
must  needs  follow  that  he  shall  thereby  gain  much  leisure,  and  save 
much  trouble,  and  therefore  at  every  action  a  man  must  privately  by 
way  of  admonition  suggest  unto  himself,  What?  May  not  this  that  I 
now  go  about,  be  of  the  number  of  unnecessary  actions!  Neither  must 
he  use  himself  to  cut  off  actions  only,  but  thoughts  and  imagination 
also  that  are  unnecessary;  for  so  will  unnecessary  consequent  actions 
the  better  be  prevented  and  cut  off." 

But  it  remained  for  Mr.  Taylor  to  prepare  the  way  for  the 
accurate  determination  of  a  fair  day's  work  by  the  scientific 
analysis  of  the  elementary  operations  and  the  time  required 
in  detail.  With  these  data  properly  classified  and  arranged, 
it  is  now  possible  to  determine  the  time  required  on  work 


58        CONSEBVING   DATA   OF   SCIENTIFIC    MANAGEMENT. 

never  done  before,  and  when  the  elementary  operations  in  all 
lines  of  industry  shall  have  been  so  analyzed,  classified  and 
arranged,  it  will  be  possible  to  determine  the  time  required 
for  the  performance  of  manual  labor  under  any  given  condi- 
tion, and  even  mental  effort  to  a  certain  extent  can  be  so 
formulated.  All  labor  must  be  resolved  by  analysis  into  its 
elementary  units,  and  these  units  may  then  be  combined  for 
any  desired  result.  The  combinations  to  a  given  end  may 
also  vary,  and  the  result  will  depend  upon  the  skill  of  the 
expert  who  prepares  the  instructions  which  he  must  know  to 
be  practicable.  These  instructions  are  not  unlike  the  labora- 
tory instructions  given  to  college  students  when  they  are 
expected  to  do  certain  things  in  a  very  definite  and  exact 
way,  and  very  often  in  a  certain  limited  time,  and  it  may  be 
said  that  the  laboratory  method  is  the  method  of  scientific 
management  in  the  progressive  workshops  of  to-day.  It  typi- 
fies the  art  of  learning  by  doing,  in  a  very  definite  clear-cut 
way.  It  does  not  tolerate  the  initiative  of  the  unskilled,  but  it 
gives  more  freedom  to  those  better  qualified  to  plan  and  direct. 
Some  of  the  data  of  scientific  management  were  therefore  col- 
lected and  conserved  by  our  colleges  long  before  the  term  itself 
was  coined,  and  if  a  department  were  formed  for  teaching 
the  science  of  management,  it  might  become  the  reservoir  into 
which  the  working  data  of  all  industries  might  be  poured  for 
analysis  and  redistribution  in  a  more  helpful  form.  Such  a 
department  would  have  an  important  influence  upon  the  study 
of  political  economy  and  trade  unionism,  and  it  might  help 
labor  to  see  its  real  interest  in  production  rather  than  in  the 
highest  possible  wages  for  the  least  amount  of  work.  It  should 
be  apparent  to  the  dullest  intellect  that  the  rewards  of  labor 
can  not  exceed  the  products  of  labor,  that  the  producers  of 
the  world  are  its  principal  consumers,  that  high  wages  for  a 
low  product  increases  the  cost  of  living,  and  that  a  large 
product  adds  to  the  general  welfare  of  the  community  re- 
gardless of  wages,  which  can  not  rise  above  their  source  as 
measured  in  the  actual  return  of  the  same  labor  applied  to 
mining  the  standard  of  value,  gold. 


WILFRED  LEWIS.  59 

All  this  should  be  apparent  but  it  is  not,  because  the  struggle 
still  goes  on  to  get  more  than  is  to  be  had  out  of  everything, 
and  by  innumerable  strikes  and  lock-outs,  the  products  avail- 
able for  distribution  are  continually  depreciated  and  reduced, 
to  the  irreparable  injury  of  common  labor,  which  suffers 
most  from  its  own  blind  folly.  In  natural  rights  all  men  are 
equal,  and  it  should  be  the  aim  of  a  beneficent  government  to 
insure  equal  opportunities  to  all.  But  in  ability  to  embrace 
opportunities  men  will  always  differ,  and  compensation  must 
be  apportioned  to  results,  if  the  highest  efficiency  is  to  be 
maintained  and  the  largest  product  realized.  The  welfare  of 
common  labor  depends,  therefore,  upon  the  welfare  of  skilled 
men  who  are  not  content  with  the  same  reward  and  naturally 
forge  ahead. 

Those  who  cannot  direct  or  control  must  follow  the  leader 
or  come  to  grief,  and  in  taking  their  proper  places  in  the 
world  of  industry  they  contribute  in  the  fullest  degree  to  their 
own  happiness  and  that  of  the  community  in  which  they  live. 
The  law  of  supply  and  demand,  freely  exercised  and  applied 
to  individuals,  can  be  safely  trusted  to  distribute  the  rewards 
of  labor  more  justly  and  more  advantageously  to  all  men  than 
any  of  the  Utopian  schemes  which  cut  out  incentive  and  en- 
deavor to  reduce  the  leaders  of  men  to  the  ranks,  because  with- 
out incentive,  the  efforts  of  able  men  will  be  relaxed,  and 
civilization  will  surely  decline.  So,  in  the  mining  of  gold,  this 
industry  will  not  continue  unless  the  product  is  at  least  equal 
to  the  outlay  in  salaries,  wages,  and  fixed  charges,  and  what 
common  labor  realizes  in  this  industry  can  not  be  exceeded 
in  any  other  industry  without  stopping  or  retarding  the  min- 
ing of  gold  upon  which  the  maintenance  of  high  wages 
depends.  The  matter  of  wages  is  therefore  under  automatic 
control,  and  since  it  does  not  affect  the  welfare  of  common 
labor  so  much  as  the  total  output  in  which  labor  participates, 
the  main  interest  of  labor  clearly  lies  in  the  cause  of  efficiency. 
But  how  long  will  it  be  before  this  is  recognized  by  the  rank 
and  file,  and  have  we  not  in  the  philosophy  of  scientific  man- 
agement another  field  for  the  activities  of  college  men  ?  Effici- 


60        CONSEKVING   DATA   OF   SCIENTIFIC    MANAGEMENT. 

ency  suffers  for  want  of  expounders,  and  a  vast  amount  of 
energy  is  misdirected  by  unworthy  leaders  to  mischievous 
ends.  When  properly  understood  and  applied  there  is  no 
conflict  between  capital  and  labor  under  scientific  manage- 
ment, and  capital  is  recognized  as  a  factor  equal  in  importance 
to  labor  itself,  without  which  the  condition  of  labor  would 
indeed  be  discouraging.  On  the  other  hand,  the  concentra- 
tion of  fabulous  wealth  in  a  few  hands,  when  heralded  as  it 
is  in  the  newspapers  and  flaunted  in  the  eyes  of  the  desperately 
poor,  cannot  fail  to  cause  discontent  with  mutterings  of  resent- 
ment and  threats  of  violence  and  revolution.  And  while  it  is 
true  that  prosperity  depends  upon  the  energy  born  of  ambi- 
tion, the  time  will  surely  come  when  the  conditions  which 
permit  such  monstrous  accumulations  will  no  longer  exist,  and 
by  the  operation  of  beneficent  laws,  predatory  wealth  will 
be  automatically  returned  to  the  community  from  which  it 
was  drawn.  This  can  be  done  in  such  a  way  as  to  impose  no 
obstacle  to  the  realization  of  any  reasonable  ambition,  and 
yet  to  make  the  acquisition  of  unlimited  wealth  attended  by 
increasing  difficulties.  The  data  of  scientific  management 
would  then  be  applied  to  the  functions  of  government,  as  well 
as  to  ways  and  means  for  the  accumulation  and  distribution 
of  wealth,  and  there  is  really  no  limit  to  their  fruitful  possi- 
bilities. 

I  conceive  it  to  be  the  function  of  colleges  to  collect  and 
conserve  the  data  of  the  sciences  which  they  undertake  to 
teach,  and  if  scientific  management  is  to  be  one  of  them,  the 
data  upon  which  it  rests  should  be  included. 

In  my  own  business,  these  data  consist,  roughly  speaking, 
of  certain  elements  which  have  been  arranged  in  the  form  of  a 
chart  beginning  with  the  charges  for  general  expense  divided 
into  auxiliary,  business,  and  manufacturing,  followed  by 
classifications  for  stores,  worked  materials,  tools,  machine 
tools,  and  materials.  These  classifications  are  subdivided  and 
their  subdivisions  are  again  and  again  divided  until  we  finally 
arrive  at  our  slide  rules  for  machine  time  and  tabulated 
records  for  the  determination  of  handling  time.  The  former 


WILFRED  LEWIS.  61 

apply  especially  to  the  particular  tools  and  machines  in  actual 
use,  and  the  latter  to  information  more  general  in  character 
which  would  be  applicable  to  machine  shops  anywhere.  It 
may  be  impracticable  to  collect  and  conserve  for  general  use 
the  data  for  slide  rules  or  the  slide  rules  themselves  designed 
especially  for  certain  machines.  This  might  be  done  by  the 
machine  tool  builders,  and  the  results  obtained  might  or  might 
not  be  their  best  selling  arguments.  The  handling  time,  how- 
ever, is  of  more  general  application,  and  some  clearing  house 
should  be  provided  for  its  reception  and  distribution  to  avoid 
the  expense  consequent  upon  the  repetition  of  this  work  by 
independent  investigators. 

I  had  thought  at  one  time  of  the  college  as  the  natural 
depository  and  distributor  of  this  information,  and  for  this 
reason  I  believe  my  subject  was  assigned,  but  we  now  have 
engineering  societies,  some  devoted  in  part  to  scientific  man- 
agement, others  to  it  exclusively,  and  this  Society  for  the  Pro- 
motion of  Engineering  Education,  any  one  of  which  might 
act  as  custodian  for  the  data  of  scientific  management,  and 
with  all  these  avenues  open  to  those  interested  in  the  results, 
it  seems  to  me  that  the  subject  belongs  more  particularly  to 
the  Society  to  Promote  the  Science  of  Management  than  to 
any  other,  and  that  the  place  of  the  college  is  to  participate  in 
the  results  and  lend  itself  as  far  as  possible  to  the  development 
of  a  true  science  from  the  data  obtained.  Its  help  is  also 
needed  in  the  art  of  teaching,  for  under  scientific  management 
every  plant  of  whatever  description  becomes  in  effect  a  trade 
school  where  unskilled  labor  is  trained  and  directed  to  a 
broader  and  better  sphere  of  usefulness.  The  acquisition  of 
knowledge  is  one  thing,  and  the  art  of  imparting  it  to  others 
is  necessarily  in  the  hands  of  men  who  have  never  been  trained 
as  teachers.  College  methods  could  therefore  be  studied  to 
advantage  by  scientific  managers,  and  the  mutual  interchange 
of  ideas  and  experiences  between  managers  and  teachers  could 
hardly  fail  to  be  of  great  benefit  to  both. 


AN  AUXILIARY  TO  COLLEGES  IN  THE  TRAINING 
OF  SCIENTIFIC  MANAGERS. 

BY   EGBERT    THURSTON   KENT, 

Editor  of  Industrial  Engineering,  New  York. 

The  writer  has  always  had  a  high  opinion  of  the  plan  inau- 
gurated by  Dean  Herman  Schneider  at  the  University  of  Cin- 
cinnati for  the  training  of  engineers,  that  is,  the  spending  of 
a  portion  of  the  college  course — which  is  five  years  in  length 
— in  the  shops  of  Cincinnati  or  nearby  towns,  during  which 
period  in  the  shops  the  students  work  side  by  side  with  the 
regular  workmen,  receiving  instruction  and  training  in  shop 
methods  which  it  would  be  impossible  to  give  them  in  the 
college  shop.  Although  the  length  of  the  course  seems  excess- 
ive, the  plan  is  an  admirable  one  in  many  respects  for  training 
engineers  who  are  to  become  machine  shop  superintendents, 
managers,  or  to  hold  positions  of  similar  character  in  other 
manufacturing  lines.  Without  doubt,  the  same  idea  could  be 
successfully  applied  to  other  lines  of  engineering  work,  such 
as  the  various  phases  of  civil  engineering,  electrical  engineer- 
ing, power  plant  practice,  heating  and  ventilating  or  any  one 
of  the  many  specialties  in  which  the  mechanical  engineer  finds 
occupation. 

While  scientific  management  is  comparatively  new,  yet,  in 
a  number  of  industries  in  this  country  its  principles  have  been 
applied  with  uniform  success.  These  shops,  in  the  writer's 
opinion,  will  form  the  best  auxiliaries  to  the  colleges  in  the 
training  of  scientific  managers,  operating  with  respect  to  scien- 
tific management  courses  in  the  colleges,  exactly  as  do  the 
shops  of  Cincinnati  to  the  engineering  course  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Cincinnati.  It  is  not  necessary  for  the  purposes  of 
training  an  engineer  in  the  principles  of  scientific  management 
that  he  study  the  operation  of  these  principles  in  a  machine 
shop.  The  principles  underlying  scientific  management  are 

62 


ROBERT   THURSTON    KENT.  O«3 

the  same  in  every  industry,  and  the  student  in  a  management 
course  can  study  their  operation  fully  as  well  in  a  textile  mill 
or  a  printing  establishment,  as  in  a  machine  shop.  It  may  be 
that  he  can  study  them  even  better,  for  in  many  industries 
there  is  not  the  complexity  of  operations  that  obtains  in 
machine  work,  which  might  appear  to  befog  the  clear  discern- 
ment of  the  underlying  principles. 

The  most  powerful  auxiliary  to  the  college  in  the  training 
of  scientific  managers,  therefore,  is  the  shop  in  some  line  of 
industry  which  is  operated  according  to  the  principles  laid 
down  by  Dr.  Taylor.  It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  a  student 
should  become  a  finished  textile  worker,  printer  or  machinist 
should  he  use  one  of  these  industries  as  an  auxiliary  to  a 
management  course,  but  he  can  learn  in  the  most  thorough 
manner  in  any  of  these  industries,  the  principles  of  routing, 
of  scheduling,  of  planning,  of  time-keeping,  store-keeping,  and 
he  also  can  learn  by  acting  under  the  instructions  of  one  of 
these  officials,  the  functions  of  the  speed  boss,  the  gang  boss, 
the  inspector  and  the  disciplinarian.  In  the  planning  depart- 
ment, he  can  act,  always  under  supervision  if  necessary,  as 
instruction  card  man,  time  and  cost  clerk,  route  clerk,  etc. 

The  plan  the  writer  advocates  in  the  training  by  colleges  of 
men  to  fill  positions  under  scientific  management,  is  that  each 
college  having  such  a  course  arrange  with  one  or  more  indus- 
tries in  its  vicinity  to  have  its  students  spend  a  part  of  their 
time  in  that  industry,  much  along  the  lines  that  the  students 
in  the  University  of  Cincinnati  spend  their  time  in  the  shops 
of  that  city.  The  course  should  be  arranged  so  that  the  stu- 
dents will  spend  several  consecutive  days  or  weeks  each  month 
in  the  shop,  performing  the  functions  of  one  or  more  of  the 
planning  department  officials  or  of  the  functional  foremen 
out  in  the  shop. 

The  writer  is  of  the  firm  belief  that  engineering  education 
is  of  comparatively  little  commercial  value  until  it  is  supple- 
mented by  practical  training  in  commercial  work,  whether 
that  work  be  shop  practice,  construction  work  or  any  other 
line  which  the  student  elects  to  follow  subsequent  to  the  com- 


64  TKAINING  OF  SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEKS. 

pletion  of  his  college  course.  This  idea  applies  just  as  much 
to  engineering  work  which  specializes  in  management  as  it 
does  to  engineering  which  specializes  in  machine  design,  power- 
plant  practice  or  any  other  line  of  engineering.  The  student 
who  has  studied  the  theory  of  management  from  books  and 
depends  upon  this  theory  alone  is  apt  to  encounter  many  pit- 
falls in  his  attempt  to  apply  what  he  has  learned.  The  big 
problems  in  management  are  not  those  of  following  a  certain 
fixed  set  of  forms  or  rules  based  on  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciples enunciated  by  Dr.  Taylor.  The  vital  problem  in  man- 
agement is  that  which  involves  a  human  element.  It  is  psy- 
chological and  until  the  would-be  manager  actually  comes  in 
contact  with  the  workmen  and  comes  to  understand  the  atti- 
tude of  the  workmen  toward  all  in  authority  above  him  and 
toward  his  work,  he  will  inevitably  fail  in  his  attempt  to  be  a 
successful  manager.  This  knowledge  cannot  be  gained  in  the 
class-room.  It  must  be  gained  by  actual  physical  contact  with 
the  workmen.  It  is,  therefore,  the  writer's  opinion  that  no 
college  giving  a  course  in  scientific  management  can  have  a 
better  auxiliary  than  a  close  working  connection  with  some 
industry  that  is  operating  under  the  principles  of  scientific 
management. 


TEACHING  SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT   IN 
ENGINEERING  SCHOOLS. 

BY    EGBERT    B.    WOLF, 

Managing  Engineer,  Burgess  Sulphite  Co.,  Berlin,  N.  H. 

It  is  not  my  purpose  to  go  into  an  elaborate  discussion  of 
the  principles  of  scientific  management,  but  simply  to  give 
briefly  my  reasons  for  believing  that  it  should  be  taught  in 
our  engineering  schools.  In  this  day  of  keen  competition  no 
manufacturing  establishment  can  be  conducted  successfully 
by  the  old  "rule  of  thumb"  methods.  This  is  especially  true 
in  that  class  of  manufacturing  which  has  been  established  for 
some  time  and  where  competition  and  increased  cost  of  raw 
materials  have  reduced  the  margin  of  profit.  There  are  quite 
a  number  of  establishments,  such  as  machine  shops,  foundries, 
etc.,  where  the  principles  of  scientific  management  have  been 
worked  out  to  a  very  fine  point  by  Dr.  Taylor  and  others. 
Any  one  starting  out  in  this  line  of  work  need  not  be  put  to 
the  trouble  and  expense  of  conducting  a  long  series  of  costly 
experiments  to  determine  such  a  question,  for  instance,  as  the 
proper  method  of  cutting  metals.  A  thorough  course  out- 
lining these  principles  can  well  be  added  to  the  curriculum  of 
our  engineering  schools.  This  course  should  describe  in  detail 
the  methods  used  in  up-to-date  machine  shops,  going  into  the 
subject  of  "time  study"  work,  store  system,  and  general  ac- 
counting, which  will  undoubtedly  save  many  a  young  engineer 
from  spending  his  time  going  over  the  ground  already  covered 
by  others.  He  could  then  devote  his  energies  to  extending 
the  field  still  further. 

In  some  industries  the  principles  of  scientific  management 
have  been  so  well  worked  out  that  it  is  hardly  any  longer  a 
question  as  to  what  are  the  best  methods  to  pursue.  If  the 
engineering  schools  will  take  up  this  subject,  it  will  enable 
the  students  to  profit  by  the  experiences  of  others,  thereby 

65 


66  TEACHING  SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT. 

tending  towards  ultimate  economy  in  manufacturing  methods. 
The  very  excellent  treatise  on  the  art  of  cutting  metals,  by 
Dr.  Taylor,  might  well  be  used  as  a  text-book,  even  though  the 
student  does  not  intend  to  follow  machine-shop  work.  A 
careful  study  of  this  book,  so  that  the  principles  involved  are 
recognized,  will  assist  materially  in  pointing  out  the  general 
methods  that  should  be  followed  in  pursuing  any  line  of 
investigation.  These  identical  principles  have  been  adopted, 
for  instance,  in  the  cooking  or  boiling  of  pulp  in  sulphite 
digesters. 

A  course  describing  the  methods  in  use  in  making  motion- 
study  might  well  be  added,  as  this  is  an  important  part  of  scien- 
tific management.  As  an  illustration  of  this,  there  is  one  large 
pulp  manufacturing  concern  that  was  able  to  save  over  $200 
per  day  in  freight  paid  to  the  railroad  companies,  by  a  careful 
motion-study  to  eliminate  lost  time  in  the  operation  of  its 
hydraulic  press  equipment  for  pressing  moisture  out  of  the 
pulp.  There  should  also  be  included  a  course  describing  the 
various  methods  of  rewarding  men  for  their  increased  effi- 
ciency. This  must  be  gone  into  very  carefully  in  order  to 
point  out  the  danger  of  attempting  any  kind  of  piece  work  or 
bonus  system,  without  scientifically  determining  in  advance 
the  best  methods  to  follow.  Mistakes  made  by  imitators  of 
scientific  management  might  have  been  avoided  if  a  more 
thorough  knowledge  on  these  subjects  had  been  available. 
The  methods  for  rewarding  foremen  and  department  heads, 
so  that  they  will  be  stimulated  to  their  best  efforts,  should 
also  be  studied,  as  well  as  those  used  to  determine  the  depart- 
mental efficiencies. 

Another  important  subject  is  the  use  of  graphical  methods 
for  analyzing  the  results  of  investigation  and  keeping  track 
of  operating  conditions.  Considering  the  extreme  simplicity 
of  this  method  and  the  impossibility  of  obtaining  intelligent  re- 
sults in  any  other  way,  it  surely  seems  that  this  subject  should 
be  given  a  great  deal  more  attention  in  our  technical  schools. 
There  is  nothing  new,  of  course,  about  graphics,  but  its  general 
application  to  business  is  new  and  should  be  studied. 


EGBERT  B.  WOLF.  67 

All  of  this,  of  course,  involves  experience  and  it  is  highly 
desirable  that  the  subjects  previously  referred  to  in  this  paper 
be  taught  by  men  who  have  had  experience  in  putting  these 
principles  into  operation.  In  my  judgment  it  would  be  im- 
proper and  might  be  productive  of  harm  rather  than  good 
if  college  instructors  simply  took  up  the  subject  by  text-book 
and  attempted  to  teach  it.  The  true  principles  of  scientific 
management  cannot  be  comprehended  in  this  way  alone,  as 
the  practicable  conditions  can  only  be  learned  by  actual  con- 
tact with  the  work  and  have  a  great  bearing  on  the  final  con- 
clusions. If  this  subject  must  be  taken  up  by  the  regular 
instructors  in  the  engineering  schools,  they  should  be  given 
permission  and  time  to  go  into  the  manufacturing  establish- 
ments now  operating  under  this  system,  to  become  thoroughly 
familiar  with  it.  After  having  done  this  they  will  be  in  a 
much  better  position  to  teach  the  subject  in  an  authoritative 
and  interesting  way. 

After  having  acquired  a  knowledge  of  the  mechanism  of 
scientific  management  the  student  should  also  be  taught  the 
general  philosophy  of  the  subject  and  it  would  be  well  to 
include  in  this  connection  a  course  in  biology  and  practical 
psychology,  for  the  reason  that  the  true  test  of  scientific  man- 
agement is  that  it  improves  and  elevates  the  mental  and 
physical  condition  of  the  workman.  A  wrong  impression  has 
been  given  by  some  of  the  opponents  of  scientific  management, 
who  claim  that  it  tends  to  make  automatons  of  men.  If  this 
has  been  done  in  any  of  the  industries  it  is  because  the  true 
principle  has  been  departed  from  and  for  this  reason,  if  for 
no  other,  the  treating  of  the  subject  in  a  comprehensive  way 
in  our  engineering  schools  would  be  a  great  advantage,  and 
would  tend  to  prevent  mistakes  of  this  character. 

One  other  thing  that  scientific  management  has  pointed  out 
very  clearly  is  that  the  physical  condition  of  the  men  should 
be  considered  to  its  fullest  extent  and  that  the  men  who  are 
overworked  and  working  in  unhygienic  surroundings  are  in 
the  very  nature  of  things  bound  to  be  more  or  less  inefficient. 
A  general  treatment,  therefore,  of  hygienic  law  is  necessary 


68  TEACHING  SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT. 

as  well  as  a  course  in  physiology  and  personal  hygiene.  A 
great  many  men  are  inefficient  largely  because  they  lack  a 
knowledge  of  how  to  take  care  of  themselves,  so  that  it  is  part 
of  the  system  of  scientific  management  to  conduct  a  campaign 
of  education  along  these  lines.  This,  of  course,  cannot  be  done 
intelligently  unless  the  men  at  the  head  of  the  organization 
realize  to  the  fullest  extent  what  this  means. 

It  seems  to  me,  in  view  of  the  fact  that  our  engineering 
schools  are  turning  out  the  men  who  become  the  heads  of  our 
large  manufacturing  concerns,  that  it  is  of  the  utmost  im- 
portance that  they  send  out  their  students  thoroughly  equipped 
with  a  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  scientific  management 
and  in  this  connection  I  believe  that  the  course  should  include 
visits  by  the  students  to  establishments  now  operating  under 
this  system.  This  would  not  .only  tend  to  make  the  course 
more  interesting,  but  would  fix  in  a  more  permanent  way  the 
things  learned  from  the  text-books.  In  conclusion,  I  can  say 
that  the  large  progressive  manufacturers  of  the  country  would 
welcome  the  thought  of  our  engineering  schools  taking  up 
this  subject. 


THE  TEACHING  OF  SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT 
IN  ENGINEERING  SCHOOLS. 

BY  HOLLIS  GODFREY, 

f. 

Consulting  Engineer,  West  Medford,  Mass. 

Two  problems  confronted  the  writer  of  this  paper  when  he 
began  his  work : 

First,  to  take  the  engineering  school  as  it  commonly  exists 
today  and  use  its  equipment  effectively  in  the  creation  of  a 
practicable  course  for  men  who  desire  to  follow  the  profes- 
sion of  industrial  or  management  engineers. 

Second,  to  take  the  student  as  he  is  and  to  equip  him  well 
for  his  work,  giving  him  studies  which  will  be  of  real  value 
and  which  he  cannot  as  well  acquire  afterwards  in  the  shop. 

It  is  merely  good  management  to  use  all  the  facilities  which 
now  exist  in  the  engineering  schools.  Their  regular  courses 
are,  in  my  belief,  admirably  adapted  to  their  purposes  and 
admirably  conducted  as  a  general  thing.  I  propose  to  use 
those  courses  in  the  training  of  the  industrial  engineers  so  far 
as  possible.  There  is  room  in  scientific  management  for  the 
man  trained  in  every  type  of  engineering.  I  propose  that  the 
student  of  the  science  of  management  shall  take  three  years 
out  of  four  in  some  one  of  the  regular  courses  in  engineering, 
devoting  one  year's  work,  made  up  of  half  the  work  of  the 
junior  year  and  half  the  work  of  the  senior  year,  to  the  direct 
courses  in  scientific  management  and  to  their  allied  courses. 
The  allied  required  courses  are  often  given  in  engineering 
schools,  and  are  almost  always  given  in  the  colleges  of  arts, 
which  commonly  exist  combined  with  engineering  schools. 
The  direct  courses  advised  here  are  given  in  the  form  pro- 
posed, so  far  as  I  know,  in  no  engineering  school,  and  amount 
to  four  half  courses.  The  progress  of  the  work,  as  will  be 
noted  later,  requires  that  the  work  in  scientific  management 
shall  be  begun  in  the  junior  year.  I  believe  that  the  plan 
outlined  here  is  practicable  and  will  enable  an  engineering 

69 


70  TEACHING   SCIENTIFIC   MANAGEMENT. 

school  to  make  the  best  use  of  its  present  equipment  in  the 
training  of  the  industrial  engineer.  I  believe  that  all  the 
content  of  these  courses  can  be  much  better  acquired  in  the 
engineering  school  than  in  the  shop  after  graduation. 

The  American  undergraduate  today,  both  in  the  college  and 
in  the  technical  school,  appears  to  me  marked  by  a  most  pro- 
found ignorance  of  industrial  conditions,  both  in  general  and 
in  detail.  Whether  that  condition  comes  from  modern  city 
life  or  not  it  is  not  the  province  of  this  paper  to  discuss.  All 
the  evidence  at  my  disposal  goes  to  show  that  it  exists.  I  do 
not  believe  that  any  lecture  course  can  conquer  that  ignorance, 
for  I  do  not  believe  that  the  average  student  has  any  basic 
knowledge,  apperceptive  basis,  if  you  will,  on  which  to  build 
the  theory  of  the  science  of  management.  For  that  reason  I 
should  prefer  to  make  it  a  prerequisite  to  the  junior  and 
senior  courses  in  industrial  engineering  that  the  student  elect- 
ing these  courses  should  be  required  to  spend  the  sophomore 
and  junior  vacations  in  the  shop.  I  should  assign  more  hours 
a  week  to  shop  or  laboratory  work  than  to  lecture  and  reci- 
tation, but  not  more  laboratory  periods. 

It  is  partly  because  of  the  undergraduate's  ignorance  of 
industrial  conditions  and  partly  because  the  opportunities  of 
the  shop  to  give  training  in  the  science  of  management  are 
limited,  that  I  state  my  firm  belief  that  a  man  trained  for  four 
years  by  the  plan  outlined  here  will  be  far  better  equipped  to 
handle  industrial  problems  than  a  man  graduating  from  one 
of  the  regular  courses  who  attempts  to  obtain  his  knowledge 
of  the  science  of  management  in  the  shop.  I  had  believed  that 
the  basic  theory  of  the  technical  school,  namely,  that  the 
student  could  advance  far  more  rapidly  in  the  school  than  in 
the  shop,  had  been  settled  long  since.  It  is  on  that  basic  edu- 
cational theory  that  I  propose  the  training  of  the  industrial 
engineer  in  the  engineering  school,  yet  to  my  surprise  I  find 
some  engineers  proposing  to  make  shop  training  alone  serve 
the  special  needs  of  the  industrial  engineer,  thus  proposing  a 
theory  which  is  quite  outworn  for  the  other  branches  of  engi- 
neering. Shop  and  school  are  too  firmly  welded  to-day  to 
allow  either  to  stand  alone. 


HOLLIS  GODFREY.  71 

As  regards  the  question  of  whether  it  might  not  prove  wise 
to  give  one  or  two  extra  years  to  the  training  of  the  industrial 
engineer,  I  have  expressly  excluded  this  proposition  from  my 
paper,  as  I  have  limited  myself  to  the  discussion  of  the  engi- 
neering school  as  it  is.  I,  therefore,  took  the  four  year  course 
as  my  basis. 

With  the  assumption  that  the  work  of  the  student  of  scien- 
tific management  during  the  first  two  years  will  be  the  same 
as  that  of  the  student  in  one  of  the  existing  engineering 
courses  and  with  the  assumption  that  the  student  has  spent 
his  sophomore  vacation  in  the  shop,  suppose  we  start  the 
student  selecting  scientific  management,  at  the  beginning  of 
his  junior  year  and  discuss  the  direct  and  allied  courses  in 
scientific  management  which  he  will  take  in  the  two  years 
before  graduation.  That  brings  us  directly  to  the  question  of 
what  powers  and  what  information  should  be  given  the  student 
of  this  subject.  As  regards  the  powers,  the  best  way  that  I 
know  to  obtain  some  statement  of  those  is  to  turn  to  the 
powers  possessed  by  successful  industrial  engineers  of  my 
acquaintance. 

According  to  my  analysis  the  essential  powers  possessed  by 
those  successful  engineers  are  the  following : 

First,  the  power  of  using  the  work  done  by  other  men.  That 
power  saves  a  man  from  repeating  uselessly  work  done  before, 
saves  him  from  repeating  the  mistakes  of  others  and  enables 
him  to  build  on  the  foundation  of  the  best  work  already  done. 

Second,  the  power  of  perspective,  of  adjustment  to  environ- 
ment, of  seeing  the  proper  relation  which  a  process  bears  to 
the  other  processes  in  a  plant,  or  that  a  plant  bears  to  its  in- 
dustry as  a  whole. 

Third,  the  power  of  research,  of  so  collecting,  correlating 
and  translating  masses  of  facts  as  to  obtain  their  meaning. 

Fourth,  the  power  of  the  making  of  designs  and  the  carry- 
ing out  of  construction  in  the  basis  of  the  facts  obtained  by 
research. 

Fifth,  the  power  of  expression,  gained  largely  through  the 
study  of  English,  which  makes  both  research  and  construe- 


72  TEACHING    SCIENTIFIC    MANAGEMENT. 

tion  so  intelligible  and  useful  that  no  time  is  wasted  through 
unintelligibility. 

After  powers  comes  information  or  perhaps  it  would  be 
better  to  say  that  powers  and  information  combined  bring  us 
to  courses  allied  and  direct.  The  first  allied  course  that  I 
should  require  of  the  student  is  economics.  The  industrial 
engineer  must  work  with  both  men  and  machines.  It  is  his 
task  to  produce,  to  bring  order  out  of  industrial  disorder,  and 
the  history  of  economic  advance,  as  well  as  the  advances  of 
present  day  economic  research,  must  be  placed  before  him  if 
he  is  not  to  waste  time  in  repeating  needlessly  the  economic 
mistakes  of  the  past.  The  industrial  engineer  must  have  the 
light  of  economics  upon  his  work.  He  must  be  able  to  use 
intelligently  the  new  work  in  economics,  but  it  must  never  be 
forgotten  that  he  is  personally  a  scientist,  not  an  economist; 
that,  to  use  Ely's  phrase,  he  is  to  deal  mainly  with  natural 
rather  than  descriptive  science. 

So  much  for  the  necessity  of  the  work  in  economics  to  which 
I  have  assigned  a  course  and  a  half.  Two  full  years  have 
been  assigned  to  those  courses  which  aid  the  industrial  engi- 
neer to  understand  the  physical  and  mental  condition  of  the 
worker,  one  year  of  physiology,  hygiene  and  sanitation  and 
one  year  of  psychology,  including  experimental  psychology. 
I  believe  that  no  single  factor  is  to  take  more  commanding 
place  in  the  development  of  the  next  years  in  scientific  man- 
agement than  the  work  to  prevent  the  evil  effects  of  the  old  type 
of  management,  of  speeding  up,  of  rush  work  and  of  disa- 
greeable and  dangerous  processes.  The  effect  of  industry  on 
the  human  frame  and  the  human  mind,  the  replacing  of  false 
theory  with  scientifically  determined  facts  as  regards  the  phys- 
ical and  mental  condition  of  the  worker,  will  be  a  part  of  the 
work  of  every  industrial  engineer.  The  graduate  in  this 
course  must  not  only  have  acquaintance  with  the  present  state 
of  knowledge  in  the  subjects  specified,  he  must  be  able  to  use 
the  advances  of  knowledge  obtained  by  the  sanitarian  and  the 
psychologist. 

Of  the  necessity  for  a  half  course  in  the  theory  and  practice 


HOLLIS  GODFREY.  73 

of  accounting  it  is  perhaps  merely  necessary  to  speak  of  the 
necessity  for  the  industrial  engineer  to  have  a  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  costs  and  of  their  relation  to  the  books  of  the  regular 
accounting  system.  The  industrial  engineer  must,  in  the  last 
analysis,  have  his  eye  constantly  upon  costs,  for  in  no  pro- 
fession is  it  more  necessary  not  to  have  the  work  cost 
more  than  it  is  worth.  Summarizing  the  allied  courses  we 
find  that  the  list  is  as  follows:  One  year  and  a  half  of  eco- 
nomics; one  year  of  physiology,  hygiene  and  sanitation;  one 
year  of  psychology  including  experimental  psychology;  one 
half  year  of  the  theory  and  practise  of  accounting.  I  assume 
that  equal  amounts  of  lecture  and  recitation  time  are  allotted 
to  each  full  course,  so  that  Scientific  Management  1 A  and  1 B 
for  example,  would  use  the  same  number  of  lecture  and  reci- 
tation hours  as  Economics  1.  The  laboratory  hours  required 
for  the  Scientific  Management  courses  would  be  additional 
to  this. 

As  regards  the  content  of  the  allied  courses  proposed  here, 
it  seems  to  me  that  the  conditions  existent  in  different  insti- 
tutions vary  so  greatly  as  to  make  it  impossible  at  present  to 
advise  specifically  the  ground  that  these  courses  should  cover. 
In  each  case  the  relations  between  the  direct  and  allied  courses 
must  be  determined  by  the  cooperation  of  the  men  in  charge 
of  the  work,  and  the  content  of  the  allied  courses  will  be 
affected  by  those  relations.  I  advise  specifically  here  as  re- 
gards the  content  of  the  courses  in  Scientific  Management,  but 
I  feel  that  the  welding  of  these  courses  with  those  now  existent 
is  an  individual  problem  which  each  institution  should  solve 
for  itself. 

Turning  directly  from  the  allied  courses  to  the  direct 
courses  in  the  science  of  management,  we  find  that  these 
courses  divide  naturally  into  four  half  courses.  Scientific 
Management  1  A,  the  first,  is  intended  to  give  the  student  a 
general  view  of  industry  and  of  the  principles  of  scientific 
management.  Scientific  Management  IB  considers  the  prob- 
lems presented  in  the  planning  of  work  and  of  all  operations 
preceding  the  actual  shop  operations.  It  lays  especial  stress 


74  TEACHING   SCIENTIFIC   MANAGEMENT. 

upon  the  lesson  to  be  taught  throughout,  namely,  that  scien- 
tific management  is  a  science  to  be  solved  by  scientific  meth- 
ods. Scientific  Management  2  A  takes  up  the  problems  of 
work  in  the  shop  with  especial  reference  to  the  workman  and 
his  machine.  Scientific  Management  2B  considers  the  re- 
sults of  the  work  done  in  1  A,  1 B  and  2  A,  and  takes  up  prob- 
lems of  costs,  of  purchasing  and  of  sales  and  especially  con- 
siders the  scientific  determination  of  the  policy  of  a  business. 
Each  of  these  courses  is  aimed  to  meet  certain  definite 
needs  or  to  furnish  certain  necessary  information.  Sum- 
marizing these  needs  in  the  case  of  Scientific  Management  1 A 
we  may  say  that  this  course  is  designed : 

1.  To  meet  the  ignorance  of  the  student  concerning  industry 
and  to  give  him  some  understanding  of  the  flow  of  work.    To 
give  him  some  understanding  of  the  principles  of  the  science 
of  management  and  of  general  methods  of  the  scientific  attack 
of  industrial  problems. 

2.  To  make  him  realize  the  main  common  factors  in  in- 
dustry. 

3.  To  make  him  realize  the  main  differing  factors  which 
make  every  plant  in  every  industry  a  new  problem. 

4.  To  show  him  the  methods  of  statistical  research  by  which 
laws  and  principles  are  determined. 

5.  To  train  him  in  observation,  to  enable  him  to  separate 
process  from  process  and  function  from  function. 

6.  To  give  him  actual  examples  of  the  application  of  other 
sciences  to  the  problems  of  management. 

To  accomplish  the  purposes  just  laid  down  I  propose  that 
the  student  in  this  course  shall  make  an  examination  of  four 
industries,  taking  one  representative  plant  from  each  industry, 
and  that  he  shall  examine  every  step  in  the  flow  of  work  from 
the  first  inquiry  of  the  customer  to  the  final  settlement  of  the 
account,  examining  these  steps  broadly  without  going  into 
their  details.  To  put  it  another  way  I  propose  that  the  stu- 
dent in  this  course  shall  study  the  broad  divisions  of  four 
plants  in  actual  operation,  leaving  the  study  of  the  subdivi- 
sions to  follow  in  the  next  three  courses.  Together  with  this 


HOLLIS  GODFREY.  75 

examination  of  actual  conditions  I  propose  that  the  student 
shall  examine  those  factors  common  to  all  the  industries  and 
the  factors  which  are  different  in  each  industry. 

Few  things  are  more  important  in  the  very  beginning  of  the 
student's  work  than  to  have  him  see  that  a  system  built  for 
a  given  plant  and  working  admirably  for  that  plant  will  not 
apply  in  another  plant  as  it  stands,  for  the  simple  reason  that 
the  different  factors  in  the  second  plant  require  study  before 
the  systems  involving  these  new  factors  can  be  designed  or 
constructed.  It  is  most  essential  at  the  very  start  to  make 
the  student  realize  that  he  must  rely  on  science  and  not  on  a 
previously  obtained  mechanism  to  solve  the  problems  of  each 
new  case,  that  he  must  solve  his  problems  by  the  use  of  the 
principles  of  scientific  management  and  not  by  the  application 
of  any  ironclad  system.  That  lesson  once  learned  opens  the 
road  to  the  proper  study  of  the  principles  of  the  science  of 
management  and  of  the  methods  used  by  that  science.  These 
methods  are,  of  course,  practically  those  used  by  every  other 
science,  yet  one  part  of  them,  the  methods  of  statistical  re- 
search, the  proper  translation  of  masses  of  statistics,  the  ob- 
taining of  the  significant  figures,  if  you  will,  needs  more 
emphasis  in  the  case  of  the  student  of  industrial  engineering 
than  would  normally  be  required  of  students  in  most  of  the 
other  engineering  courses.  Our  knowledge  of  methods  of  sta- 
tistical research  is  increasing  daily.  They  offer  too  valuable 
a  tool  for  the  industrial  engineer  to  be  omitted  from  a  course 
in  scientific  management. 

In  this  connection  it  is  important  for  the  student  to  learn 
that  the  mere  accumulation  and  even  the  correlation  of  data 
may  have  no  value  and  may  be  an  extremely  expensive  habit, 
provided  judgment  is  not  used  in  the  selection  of  the  data  to 
be  studied  and  provided  the  data,  once  assembled  and  corre- 
lated, is  not  rightly  translated  into  usable  form.  Few  things 
need  the  control  of  common  sense  more  than  statistical  re- 
search. Few  things  are  more  valuable,  once  that  control  is 
exercised.  Work  in  graphical  analysis  should  prove  of  assist- 
ance here. 

It  is  extremely  necessary  in  a  course  such  as  is  here  out- 


76  TEACHING   SCIENTIFIC   MANAGEMENT. 

lined  that  the  student  should  be  required  to  test  and  retest 
his  knowledge.  No  student  should  be  allowed  to  complete  this 
course  without  handing  in  a  report  showing  a  careful  study  of 
the  main  processes  in  some  plant  in  actual  operation,  prefer- 
ably a  plant  engaged  in  some  industry  not  among  the  four 
industries  chosen  for  the  course. 

Having  gained  his  perspective  in  the  first  course  in  scien- 
tific management  the  student  may  begin  the  study  of  detail 
in  the  second  course  in  which,  as  has  already  been  said,  it 
seems  advisable  to  consider  the  planning  and  preparation 
processes  which  occur  previous  to  the  passage  of  the  work 
into  the  shop.  This  course  involves  the  detailed  study  of  a 
group  of  the  main  factors  involved  in  management,  routing, 
stores,  etc.,  determining  the  subdivisions  of  these  factors  for 
individual  cases  but  excluding  direct  machine  operations. 
Methods  of  collecting  all  available  data  concerning  these 
factors  of  industry,  the  making  of  a  science  out  of  the  opera- 
tions of  an  industry  through  the  collection,  correlating  and 
expression  in  useful  form  of  all  data  concerning  an  operation, 
should  be  shown  here  with  especial  reference  to  the  working 
out  of  the  first  principle  of  scientific  management  as  given 
by  Dr.  Taylor.  Mechanisms  derived  from  scientific  study  and 
already  in  use  in  different  places  should  be  considered  and 
basic  likenesses  in  these  mechanisms  discussed.  Differences, 
existing  in  different  industries,  should  be  considered  and  it 
should  be  made  plain  that  these  mechanisms,  being  based  on 
scientific  study  of  principles,  will  differ  outwardly  in  different 
cases  but  will  be  basically  the  same. 

The  fact  that  men  and  machines,  and  not  machines  alone, 
are  studied  in  the  science  of  management  must  be  brought 
out  here  in  connection  with  physiology,  hygiene  and  sanita- 
tion. The  effect  of  heat,  light  and  air  on  the  workman,  the 
problems  of  fatigue  and  the  deleterious  effect  of  the  rush 
work  of  the  old  type  of  management  should  be  especially  con- 
sidered here. 

The  student  in  this  course  should  not  go  back  of  the  point 
where  the  orders  are  transmitted  from  the  sales  department 


HOLLIS  GODFBEY. 


77 


into  the  factory,  but  his  study  of  the  preliminary  processes 
should  begin  at  this  point,  pass  through  the  study  of  design, 
of  preparation  of  material  or  stores,  through  study  of  the 
principles  of  stores,  through  routing,  order  of  work  and  the 
control  of  work  going  through  the  shop,  and  should  include 
some  symbolization  and  some  studies  of  the  general  articula- 
tion and  f  unctionalization  of  the  planning  department.  Study 
of  the  problems  of  tools,  of  time  study  and  of  instruction 
cards,  although  technically,  perhaps,  included  in  this  division 
of  the  subject,  should  be  left  until  the  following  course. 

When  the  student  has  completed  the  course  outlined  above 
he  should  have  a  fair  knowledge  of  the  best  practice  of  indus- 
trial engineering  in  its  relation  to  the  planning  of  work.  He 
should  have  a  fair  conception  of  the  methods  of  attack  by 
which  industrial  difficulties  have  been  solved  and  the  way  in 
which  they  may  be  solved  by  the  application  of  the  science  of 
management.  He  should  himself  have  gained  some  power  in 
the  solution  of  practical  problems  and  he  should  be  required 
at  the  end  of  this  course  to  prove  his  ability  by  the  actual 
solution  of  an  actual  problem  of  the  planning  room. 

Scientific  Management  2  A  purposes  to  take  up  the  prob- 
lem of  the  passage  of  work  through  the  shop  from  the  begin- 
ning of  the  first  machine  or  hand  process  applied  to  the  raw 
material  to  the  delivery  of  the  finished  article  to  stores  or  to 
the  shipping  room.  It  involves  a  study  of  machine  and  hand 
processes  but  this  is  but  a  part  of  its  work.  It  is  in  this 
course  that  the  student  first  meets  the  great  problem  of  the 
task,  of  the  substitution  of  the  justice  of  science  for  the  guess- 
work of  man  as  a  basis  for  the  cooperation  of  employer  and 
employee,  and  meets  the  problems  of  education  that  are  in- 
volved in  the  theory  of  functional  foremanship. 

We  may  outline  briefly  the  subject  matter  of  the  course  as 
follows : 

1.  Study  of  the  task  with  a  view  to  the  elimination  of  all 
disagreeable  and  dangerous  elements. 

2.  Study  of  the  task  with  a  view  to  determining  the  duties 
of  the  management  in  obtaining  the  right  task. 


78  TEACHING   SCIENTIFIC   MANAGEMENT. 

3.  Study  of  the  task  with  a  view  to  machine  improvements. 
(These  studies  should  be  done  in  the  shops  of  the  school.) 

4.  Study  of  the  education  of  the  workman. 

5.  Study  of  functionalization  in  the  shop. 

6.  Proper  methods  of  instruction  card  writing. 

7.  Proper  methods  of  record. 

The  following  subjects  should  also  be  considered  here: 

8.  The  selection  of  the  workman. 

9.  The  study  of  physiological  and  psychological  factors  in- 
volved in  certain  given  cases. 

The  student  who  gains  what  he  should  from  the  course  in 
Scientific  Management  2  A  should  gain  far  more  than  the 
technique  of  time  study.  He  should  make  appreciable  gains 
in  his  power  of  observation  and  of  analysis.  He  should  gain 
the  conception  that  time  study,  far  from  being  a  weapon  to 
wrongly  speed  up  a  worker,  furnishes  a  means  of  removing 
the  disagreeable,  inefficient  and  dangerous  elements  of  a  work- 
er's task.  He  should  gain  facility  of  expression  in  the  practice 
of  making  out  instruction  cards,  improve  his  power  of  choice 
in  the  selection  of  tools  for  tool  lists,  and  gain  a  considerable 
appreciation  of  the  best  methods  in  vogue  to-day  for  the  in- 
crease of  the  efficiency  of  men  and  machines. 

No  part  of  his  work  should  give  the  student  more  under- 
standing of  the  problem  of  obtaining  the  workman's  coopera- 
tion than  his  study,  towards  the  end  of  this  course,  of  the 
problems  of  the  scientific  selection  and  development  of  the 
workman  as  laid  down  in  the  second  and  third  of  Dr.  Taylor's 
principles  of  scientific  management.  The  year's  work  in 
physiology,  hygiene  and  sanitation  which  has  preceded  this 
course,  the  work  in  psychology  which  goes  on  with  it,  should 
be  of  great  aid  to  the  student  in  his  effort  to  comprehend  these 
most  important  principles. 

At  the  end  of  this  course,  the  student  should  present  a  re- 
port of  a  rather  comprehensive  nature  involving  the  deter- 
mination and  expression  of  a  task.  This  report  should  involve 
not  only  time  studies,  but  all  the  expression  of  the  task  as 
shown  in  the  writing  of  instruction  cards,  tool  lists,  work  of 


HOL.LIS  GODFREY.  79 

functional  foremen,  etc.  The  work  in  English  should  show 
its  value  here. 

Scientific  Management  2B,  the  final  course,  considers  the 
results  and  records  of  planning  and  of  work  in  the  shop.  It 
should  consider  the  effect  upon  design  of  the  records  made  in 
both  of  the  previous  courses  and  especially  the  effect  upon  the 
policy  of  the  firm  of  the  weak  and  strong  points  brought  out 
by  the  scientific  study  of  the  various  problems  involved.  The 
latter  part  of  the  course  should  be  given  up  to  a  general  re- 
view of  the  whole  subject  and  should  give  especial  considera- 
tion to  the  fourth  of  Dr.  Taylor's  principles  of  scientific 
management,  the  new  division  of  the  total  burden  between 
management  and  operative,  as  shown  in  all  the  courses. 

Summarizing  the  general  subject  matter  of  this  course,  we 
may  say  that  this  fourth  section  should  concern  itself,  first, 
with  the  proper  recording  of  the  work  done  in  respect  to  time 
and  to  costs;  second,  with  methods  of  wage  and  bonus  deter- 
mination; third,  with  methods  of  inventory  taking  and  pur- 
chasing curves;  fourth,  with  methods  of  design  in  scientific 
management ;  fifth,  with  a  general  review.  Then,  as  determin- 
ing future  policy,  should  come  the  study  of  sales  curves  and 
cost  curves,  those  great  aids  in  determining  what  classes  of 
business  really  pay. 

The  wide-reaching  possibilities  of  using  the  investigations 
of  scientific  management  in  determining  the  policy  of  a  busi- 
ness, in  respect  to  design,  to  classes  of  product,  to  choice  of 
customers,  and  to  determining  the  field  of  sales  has  received  as 
yet  but  little  outside  notice.  Of  the  two  functions  of  cost,  one, 
the  use  of  costs  in  determining  prices,  has  received  a  fair 
share  of  attention.  The  other,  the  use  of  costs  in  determining 
the  most  profitable  classes  of  business,  receives  to-day  nothing 
like  the  attention  that  it  merits.  The  work  in  costs  should 
not  only  teach  the  student  methods  of  cost  distribution  which 
will  distribute  every  penny  expended  in  a  given  time  upon  the 
product  manufactured  in  that  time.  It  should  teach  him  also 
to  use  costs  as  a  constant  check  upon  the  progress  of  his  own 
work  and  as  a  guide  to  the  future  direction  of  a  business. 


80  TEACHING   SCIENTIFIC   MANAGEMENT. 

Sales  curves  added  to  cost  curves  throw  still  more  light 
upon  the  problems  of  the  most  favorable  fields  to  attack  and 
the  classes  of  goods  which  seem  best  suited  .to  both  the  produc- 
tion possibilities  of  the  factory  and  the  requirements  of  the 
customers.  In  a  great  number  of  the  factories  of  the  United 
States  to-day  the  sales  and  the  manufacturing  departments 
live  in  a  state  of  warfare.  Service  is  pitted  constantly  against 
production.  It  is  peculiarly  the  province  of  the  industrial 
engineer  to  determine  by  study  the  actual  basis  on  which  the 
most  profitable  service  and  production  can  be  given  and  to 
bring  the  sales  department  and  the  factory  into  harmony. 

The  problems  of  the  maximum  and  minimum  quantities  to 
be  carried  in  stores,  requires  careful  study  if  a  plant  is  to 
avoid  the  two  extremes  of  being  out  of  material  or  of  locking 
up  too  much  money  in  stores.  Both  extremes  are  dangerous 
and  both  should  be  avoided  by  scientific  study  and  not  by 
guesswork.  Work  of  this  sort  begun  earlier  may  be  amplified 
in  course  2  B. 

The  application  of  these  investigations  to  design,  governed 
largely  by  the  charted  studies  of  time  and  costs,  has  pro- 
duced remarkable  results  both  in  the  adaptation  of  design  to 
the  needs  of  the  customer  and  consumer,  and  in  the  cutting 
down  of  the  costs  of  the  article.  The  final  course,  Course  2  B, 
is  the  place  for  the  discussion  of  these  points. 

At  the  «nd  of  the  course  the  student  should  make  a  report 
embodying  actual  reports  of  time  and  cost,  of  sales  and  pur- 
chasing curves  for  a  given  plant. 

As  regards  the  methods  of  instruction, — lecture,  recitation 
and  laboratory  are  all  mingled  in  about  the  usual  proportions. 
The  laboratory  work  must  largely  be  done  in  allied  friendly 
plants,  but  the  present  day  interest  of  manufacturers  in  tech- 
nical education  should  make  this  easily  possible.  No  task 
setting  should,  however,  be  done  elsewhere  than  in  the  shops 
of  the  school.  That  is  too  delicate  a  matter  for  student  hands 
and  involves  too  many  possible  difficulties  when  done  by  others 
than  experts. 

I  left  teaching  a  considerable  time  ago  when  I  took  up 


HOLLJS  GODFBEY.  81 

the  study  and  practice  of  the  science  of  management,  but 
I  believe  I  have  not  lost  any  of  my  interest  in  effective  teach- 
ing or  any  of  my  beliefs  in  education.  This  paper  is  the 
outcome  of  my  interests  and  beliefs  in  education  and  in  scien- 
tific management.  And  I  believe  in  scientific  management 
because  in  the  period  during  which  it  has  been  my  good 
fortune  to  have  been  associated  with  Frederick  Winslow 
Taylor,  I  have  never  found  any  industrial  problem  which  the 
science  of  management  would  not  solve.  I  have  seen  with  my 
own  eyes  marked  savings  in  money,  marked  advances  in  serv- 
ice and  production,  marked  improvement  in  the  condition  of 
the  worker.  With  that  personal  experience  it  is  perhaps  no 
wonder  that  I  have  become  an  enthusiast  on  the  subject,  that 
I  look  for  its  advancement  in  every  way  and  that  the  teaching 
of  scientific  management  should  interest  me  deeply. 

I  believe  that  with  the  training  outlined  above,  properly 
given  by  qualified  men  and  properly  assimilated  by  the  pupil, 
the  student  should  reach  the  end  of  his  course  a  thorough 
believer  in  the  science  of  management,  with  the  desire  and 
ability  to  use  the  scientific  spirit  in  the  solution  of  the  prob- 
lems of  industry.  He  should  have  a  mind  that  is  willing  to 
accept  and  use  all  that  is  best  of  the  work  of  other  men,  yet 
he  should  be  constant  in  the  pursuit  of  knowledge.  The 
industrial  engineer  will  never  be  a  man  who  "  knows  his  own 
business "  for  he  knows  that  no  man  can  measure  or  limit  the 
advance  of  science.  Free  from  dogma  and  from  prejudice, 
blessed  with  the  open  mind  and  with  the  equipment  of  modern 
science  the  industrial  engineer,  so  trained,  should  be  prepared 
to  do  his  part  in  bringing  justice  and  betterment  to  every 
worker  everywhere  in  the  new  industrial  day. 

Note. — In  the  preceding  paper  I  recognize  that  I  present 
the  view  of  one  man,  aided  by  friendly  criticisms.  The  de- 
velopment of  a  course  of  the  kind  proposed  here  must  be,  in 
the  last  analysis,  the  work  of  many  men.  It  has  been  my  aim 
throughout  this  paper  to  make  definite  statements  which  can 
be  definitely  shown  to  be  practicable  or  impracticable  in  a 
given  case.  Deeply  interested  in  the  problem  as  I  am,  I  shall 
welcome  all  constructive  criticism. 


TEACHING   THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    SCIENTIFIC 
MANAGEMENT. 

BY  WALTER  RAUTENSTRAUCH, 
Professor  of  Mechanical  Engineering,  Columbia   University. 

The  records  of  this  society,  the  transactions  of  engineering 
institutes,  articles  in  the  public  press  and  the  reports  of  many 
conferences  give  evidence  of  an  ever  increasing  interest  in 
the  subject  of  engineering  education  in  preparation  for  service 
in  the  manufacturing  industries.  The  remarkable  results  be- 
ing accomplished  by  American  manufacturers  in  the  produc- 
tion of  commodities  at  lower  costs  than  were  obtained  in 
earlier  years  have  awakened  the  people  to  the  possibilities  of 
accomplishment  in  all  lines  of  human  endeavor  through  a 
more  accurate  knowledge  of  the  factors  of  cost  incident  to 
these  activities.  Efficiency  societies,  committees  of  the 
national  and  local  engineering  organizations  and  special  pub- 
lications devoted  to  the  Science  of  Organization,  Management 
and  Production  are  springing  into  being,  for  the  purpose  of 
spreading  far  and  wide  a  knowledge  of  those  principles  of 
production  which  have  been  so  effective  in  the  industries  where 
they  have  been  sanely  tried.  While  many  commercial  institu- 
tions have  been  put  on  a  more  substantial  foundation  to  the 
benefit  of  both  producer  and  consumer,  and  industries  over- 
burdened with  financial  obligations,  occasioned  by  errors  in 
operation  and  management,  have  been  given  a  new  start,  yet 
some  manufacturers  and  managers  of  the  old  school  have  held 
themselves  aloof  from  partaking  in  this  new  movement  be- 
cause of  years  of  prosperity  under  the  older  conditions  of 
manufacture.  It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  to  find  the 
same  attitude  in  some  of  our  universities  and  colleges  where 
the  policies  are  dictated  by  professors  schooled  and  experi- 
enced in  means  and  methods  of  instruction  which  no  longer 
parallel  the  modern  requirements  of  engineering  service,  and 

82 


WALTER  RAUTENSTRAUCH.  83 

whose  knowledge  of  present  engineering  practice  is  mainly 
derived  from  text-books. 

Our  successful  industries  to-day  are  those  which  have 
adapted  themselves  to  the  changing  economic  conditions  of 
the  times  and  are  not  judging  their  present  condition  by  the 
results  of  past  performance.  So  also  will  it  be  found  that 
our  engineering  schools  will  progress  to  the  extent  to  which 
they  keep  the  subject  matter  of  their  courses  and  methods 
of  instruction  abreast  with  the  practice  of  the  profession  for 
which  they  propose  to  give  preparation  and  also  not  to  judge 
their  excellence  by  the  records  of  graduates  who  have  become 
successful  in  practical  life.  Serious  attempts  are  being  made 
not  only  within  the  universities  but  without,  to  have  the 
courses  of  instruction  in  engineering  more  closely  identified 
with  modern  conditions  of  service  but  the  changes  proposed 
lead  one  to  believe  that  emphasis  is  not  being  placed  on  the 
most  important  factors.  As  it  has  been  found  true  in  the 
case  of  the  factory  that  modern  improvements  are  wrought 
not  by  additions  in  organization,  equipment  and  accounting 
but  rather  by  a  complete  change  of  policy  and  ideals  even 
extending  to  the  organic  design  of  buildings  and  equipment 
and  the  occupation  of  new  ground,  so  also  will  it  be  found  in 
the  engineering  schools  that  the  preparation  of  young  men 
for  engineering  service  is  not  much  improved  by  mere  addi- 
tion to  the  curriculum  but  there  must  be  complete  changes 
in  ideals,  methods  and  means  of  instruction.  Accordingly, 
therefore,  those  schools  in  which  the  purely  technological 
aspect  of  engineering  problems  has  for  years  predominated 
the  courses  of  instruction,  will  never  effect  a  successful  change 
when  they  attempt  to  retain  the  old  presentation  of 
subject  matter  and  simply  add  courses  in  "scientific  man- 
agement" to  satisfy  the  popular  demand.  No  separate  course 
of  instruction  pretending  to  deal  with  the  science  of  organiza- 
tion, management  and  production,  divorced  from  vital  contact 
with  problems  of  design  and  performance  in  which  these  prin- 
ciples are  embodied,  will  ever  be  effective  when  standing  alone. 
Whatever  instruction  is  offered  in  these  lines  must  always  be 


84  TEACHING   SCIENTIFIC   MANAGEMENT. 

paralleled  by  applications  and  illustrations  in  all  courses  of 
the  curriculum.  Universities  attempting  to  teach  the  '  *  science 
of  management "  to  non-technical  students;  bookkeepers  and 
accountants  engaging  in  the  business  of  advising  manufactur- 
ers in  the  matter  of  lowering  the  cost  of  productive  processes 
of  which  they  know  nothing,  only  serve  to  misguide  many  an 
earnest  youth  who  seeks  to  prepare  himself  for  real  and  sub- 
stantial service. 

No  one  would  dare  suggest  the  revision  of  legal  procedure 
or  scientific  management  of  the  courts  by  one  not  well  versed 
in  the  law,  nor  can  it  be  imagined  that  the  great  problems  of 
public  health  should  be  attacked  by  one  not  thoroughly  drilled 
in  the  science  of  medicine,  yet  our  great  industrial  institu- 
tions are  continually  embarrassed  and  even  persecuted  by  men 
wholly  incapable  of  comprehending  their  problems.  The 
time  is  not  so  long  ago  when  the  architectural  features  of  a 
bridge  or  a  factory  building  together  with  the  maximum  limit 
of  appropriation  of  funds  allowed  had  more  influence  in  the 
design  of  such  structures  than  the  relation  of  their  income 
producing  capacities  to  their  cost.  The  technical  excellence  of 
the  design  and  perfection  and  accuracy  of  workmanship  were 
matters  of  considerable  pride  to  producers  and  were  not  to  be 
degraded  through  considerations  of  a  mere  utilitarian  nature. 
In  some  quarters  this  point  of  view  still  lingers  and  is  fostered 
by  municipalities  and  governments  requiring  of  their  engi- 
neers of  public  works  to  judge  their  expenditures  by  the 
limit  of  appropriation  available.  But  the  manufacturing  in- 
dustries compel  the  engineer  to  render  an  entirely  different 
kind  of  service.  Some  professors  having  knowledge  of  the 
older  form  of  service,  a  magnified  regard  for  excellence  in 
technic  and  a  tendency  toward  the  academic,  find  great  diffi- 
culty in  adapting  themselves  to  the  pressing  demands  of 
modern  times. 

No  attempt  is  being  made  to  belittle  the  worth  of  a  high 
degree  of  scientific  ability ;  we  cannot  have  too  much  of  it  in 
our  schools.  But  it  is  believed  that  it  alone  may  be  far  re- 
moved from  an  ability  to  solve  commercial  problems.  The 


WALTER  EAUTENSTRAUCH.  85 

most  highly  skilled  artisan  may  be  a  very  poor  man  to  decide 
the  policies  to  be  followed  in  manufacturing  a  line  of  goods 
for  a  given  market.  So  also  the  most  scientific  professor, 
understanding  all  the  laws  of  thenno-dynamics,  may  be  wholly 
incapable  of  selecting  the  most  economic  commercial  equip- 
ment of  power  machinery  for  a  station  to  meet  a  given 
service  condition ;  or  being  able  to  solve  the  most  complicated 
problems  in  stress  analysis,  may  not  be  able  to  determine  the 
type  of  bridge  which  will  burden  the  transportation  system 
with  minimum  capital  charges  or  perform  its  service  with 
minimum  weight.  This  feeling  on  the  part  of  the  professor 
that  he  possesses  a  superior  sort  of  knowledge,  far  above  that 
possessed  by  the  business  man  is  conducive  to  a  wholly  in- 
adequate treatment  of  the  subject  he  professes  to  teach  and  is 
evidence  that  he  does  not  appreciate  the  nature  of  the  service 
for  which  his  students  should  be  prepared.  Any  course  of  in- 
struction, no  matter  how  excellent  in  its  treatment  of  scientific 
facts  and  methods  of  analysis,  highly  desirable  as  these  may 
be,  is  incomplete  when  it  fails  to  impart  to  the  student  a 
knowledge  of  the  conditions  under  which  this  information  may 
become  commercially  serviceable.  Our  engineering  schools 
are  supposed  by  employers  to  have  for  their  aim  the  prepara- 
tion of  young  men  for  service  in  our  great  industrial  institu- 
tions engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  commodities  such  as 
shoes,  hats,  typewriters,  jewelry,  glassware,  brick,  cement, 
soaps,  cloth,  paper,  paints,  automobiles,  locomotives,  steel  and 
iron  products  in  endless  variety,  form  and  complexity,  and 
the  creation  of  services  such  as  light,  heat,  power  refrigera- 
tion, communication,  transportation  and  information.  Ac- 
cording to  the  1910  census  the  manufacturing  industries  alone 
in  the  United  States  represent  an  investment  of  capital  of 
about  13  billions  of  dollars  and  produce  an  annual  output  of 
nearly  20  billions  of  dollars  value,  employing  6  million  people 
who  directly  support  through  these  earnings  about  25  millions 
or  nearly  one  fourth  of  our  population.  These  manufacturing 
industries,  having  such  important  economic  relations  to  our 
welfare,  are  brought  into  being  and  sustained  through  the 


TEACHING   SCIENTIFIC    MANAGEMENT. 

labors  of  the  engineer  and  the  capitalist  supported  by  the 
people  investing  in  industrial  securities.  That  the  engineer 
and  the  capitalist  may  successfully  cooperate,  each  must 
understand  the  laws  which  condition  the  existence  and  pros- 
perity of  the  manufacturing  industries.  As  the  banker  is 
guided  in  his  investment  in  industrial  securities  through  his 
knowledge  of  their  probable  earning  capacities  so  the  manu- 
facturer or  engineer  wisely  invests  in  machinery  and  plant, 
materials  and  the  labors  of  men  according  to  his  ability  to 
forecast  their  probable  earning  value.  That  the  bond  is  a 
mortgage  on  an  electric  railway,  a  gas  plant  or  a  municipality 
is  merely  incidental  to  the  banker,  so  also  that  the  commodity 
is  steel  rails,  alarm  clocks,  collars,  or  steam  machinery  is  in- 
cidental to  the  manufacturer  and  engineer. 

Because  of  the  knowledge  of  scientific  facts  necessary  for 
the  engineer  to  enable  him  to  deal  with  these  commercial 
problems  it  was  once  believed  that  instruction  in  these  alone 
was  a  sufficient  preparation  for  the  practice  of  the  profession. 
Hence  this  sort  of  teaching  characterized  our  engineering 
schools  in  the  early  days  and  still  exists  in  some  institutions 
at  the  present  time.  But  the  more  alert  minds  in  our  engi- 
neering schools,  in  touch  with  practical  affairs,  are  aware  that 
this  is  not  sufficient.  Thermodynamics  most  positively  indi- 
cates the  superiority  of  the  gas  engine  over  the  steam  engine ; 
yet  the  progress  of  the  gas  engine  has  depended  little  if  at 
all  on  this  long-known  principle  but  rather  on  entirely  outside 
practical  considerations  such  as  difference  in  first  cost,  size, 
space  occupied,  repair  and  maintenance  charges,  the  nature 
and  quantity  of  labor  required  for  their  operation,  and 
the  availability  of  fuel  supply  in  gaseous  form.  All  these 
conditions  and  many  more  enter  into  the  question  of  true 
economy  and  are  entirely  outside  of  the  consideration  of 
thermodynamic  economy.  Therefore,  any  theory  of  power- 
generating  machinery  which  fails  to  include  the  various 
factors  of  cost,  including  labor  as  well  as  capital  charges, 
and  their  variation  with  local  conditions,  is  not  a  complete 
theory  and  therefore  not  a  theory  to  teach  engineering  stu- 


WALTER  RAUTENSTRAUCH.  87 

dents.  These  mathematical  laws  are  very  valuable  in  ex- 
plaining results  attained  and  preventing  attempts  at  the  im- 
possible but  not  nearly  so  useful  in  that  prediction  of  results, 
which  is  the  prerequisite  for  design  of  whatever  sort,  as  many 
of  their  professional  advocates  have  for  years  taught  their 
students  to  believe.  For  many  years  past  the  average  course 
of  study  absolutely  ignored  all  those  subjects  or  methods  of 
treating  subjects  that  were  not  capable  of  algebraic  formula- 
tion. The  labor  and  cost  questions,  although  they  are  at  least 
of  equal  importance,  have  been  ignored,  while  the  mathemat- 
ical or  purely  technological  has  often  been  carried  to  absurd 
extremes.  Those  parts  of  engineering  subjects  which  admit 
of  treatment  by  the  theory  of  numbers  are  always  beyond 
doubt  absolutely  essential.  It  is  not  the  purpose  here  to 
belittle  them  but  rather  to  place  them  in  their  proper  position 
as  partially  and  not  by  any  means  wholly  preparatory  sub- 
jects. It  is  indeed  important  to  teach  students  to  lay  out 
machines,  to  determine  the  forces  in  the  mechanism,  and  to 
proportion  the  parts  for  stiffness  and  strength  but  it  is  equally 
important  that  they  be  taught  that  a  variety  of  machines  might 
be  designed  to  perform  precisely  the  same  service,  and  that 
there  will  result  perhaps  varying  degrees  of  goodness  but 
certainly  great  variations  in  cost  not  only  to  build  them  but 
to  operate  them.  Unless  a  machine  can  be  built  at  a  cost 
sufficiently  low  to  meet  the  demand  it  will  never  get  beyond 
the  experimental  stage  and  there  is  absolutely  no  use  in  de- 
signing a  machine  if  its  cost  of  production  or  operation  exceeds 
what  can  be  properly  paid.  It  is  certainly  important  to  teach 
the  students  how  a  bar  can  be  turned  round  or  a  plate  made 
flat  or  how  every  operation  necessary  to  making  a  machine 
may  be  carried  out  by  a  mechanic ;  but  it  is  equally  important 
that  he  should  know  their  relative  costs  so  that  he  may  avoid 
the  expensive  operations  or  reduce  their  use  to  a  minimum. 
He  should  also  be  taught  that  the  maximum  economy  in  pro- 
ducing that  machine  will  result  when  it  is  made  in  quantity, 
and  why,  and  that  quantity  production  will  involve  changes  in 
design,  changes  in  shop  processes  because  it  permits  the  use 


88  TEACHING   SCIENTIFIC   MANAGEMENT. 

of  special  instead  of  standard  tools  and  finally  and  most  im- 
portant, that  quantity  production  involves  many  men  and  that 
many  men  require  management  that  each  may  produce  the 
maximum  for  his  wages,  and  that  such  an  organization  for 
economic  production  is  subject  to  laws  and  principles  of  far 
greater  consequence  than  all  the  thermodynamics  that  was 
ever  formulated ;  and  yet  laws  of  essentially  the  same  nature 
as  those  that  control  the  design  of  his  machine. 

The  teaching  of  each  subject  in  the  engineering  school  from 
this  point  of  view  seems  to  furnish  the  only  means  through 
which  an  understanding  of  the  foundational  factors  in  the 
economics  of  production  can  be  acquired.  Any  ideal  short  of 
this  will  only  serve  to  further  the  feeling,  all  too  prevalent 
even  in  practice,  that  the  science  of  production  may  be  con- 
sidered apart  from  the  very  forces  which  it  proposes  to  control. 
It  is  believed  therefore  that  a  knowledge  of  the  principles 
of  economic  production  is  a  necessary  part  of  every  engineer 's 
equipment,  be  he  designer  of  machines,  structures,  water- 
ways or  public  works,  employee  or  employer,  in  order  that  he 
may  be  able  to  successfully  cooperate  with  or  coordinate  the 
labors  of  many  men,  working  in  many  fields  but  all  endeavor- 
ing to  create  a  given  commodity  or  render  a  service  to  satisfy 
a  real  demand. 

This  ideal  has  been  the  end  toward  which  every  course  of 
instruction  in  the  department  of  mechanical  engineering  at 
Columbia  University  has  for  years  past  been  directed.  This 
course  of  instruction  which  was  developed  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Dr.  Charles  E.  Lucke,  head  of  the  department,  in- 
cludes courses  in  principles  of  organization,  management,  cost 
accounting,  wage  payment  methods,  economics  and  business 
laws  as  a  necessary  part  but  by  no  means  the  whole  of  an 
adequate  treatment  of  the  principles  of  economic  production. 
The  aim  of  the  course  is  not  to  train  managers  but  engineers. 
Should  our  studies  through  personal  qualifications  prove 
to  be  adapted  to  the  problems  of  management,  well  and 
good.  Limitation  of  time  will  not  permit  a  survey  of  the  out- 
lines of  all  courses  of  instruction  given  in  this  institution,  but 


WALTER  EAUTENSTBAUCH.  89 

it  is  hoped  that  the  consideration  of  a  few  will  lead  to  a 
clearer  exposition  of  what  is  believed  to  be  a  proper  presenta- 
tion of  subject  matter.  To  this  end  there  have  been  chosen 
the  courses  in  steam  power,  elevators  and  conveyors,  shop 
processes,  organization  and  management,  and  the  factory  and 
power  plant  work  required  of  the  students  in  the  second  and 
third  summers  respectively. 

Steam  Power.    Three  hours  and  two  afternoons. 

Eelation  Between  the  Cost  of  Power  and  Thermal  Efficiency  of  the 
Plant.  Commercial  Value  of  Eefinements — Determination  of  engine  and 
boiler  ratings  and  corresponding  efficiencies  and  probable  coal  and  water 
consumption  for  plant  on  given  load  curve.  Essential  relation  between 
processes  and  dimensions  of  the  steam  plant.  Steam  plant  refinements 
for  raising  efficiency  of  part  or  complete  plant  and  relations  between 
dimensions  and  effect.  Use  of  unit  costs  of  apparatus  in  estimating, 
examination  of  cost  sheets  to  determine  prime  unit  of  cost.  Cost  of 
power.  Fixed  and  operating  charges,  ratio  of  each  individual  item  to 
total,  and  effect  of  labor  and  fuel  rates,  load  factor  and  refinements  on 
the  fractional  part.  Value  of  refinements  of  design  on  basis  of  capital- 
ized annual  saving  by  comparing  the  cost  of  waste  and  the  cost  of  its 
elimination,  including  all  charges.  Specifications  and  contracts;  standard 
and  special  methods  and  forms  for  defining  purchaser's  requirements  and 
builder's  proposals,  contracts,  methods  of  power  plant  erection.  Design- 
ing and  erecting  office  organization  and  field  systems. 

The  work  consists  in  laying  out  a  simple  power  plant  for  assigned 
units  in  the  drafting  room  or  the  detailing  of  existing  general  plant 
drawings,  preparation  of  the  bill  of  materials,  estimating  the  first  cost, 
fixed  charges,  probable  coal,  water,  labor  and  supply  cost  for  an  assumed 
load  curve  and  total  power  cost.  The  plants  so  designed  or  detailed  are 
exchanged  by  students  and  redesigned  for  an  increase  of  100  per  cent, 
peak  and  50  per  cent,  mean  daily  load  and  for  the  maximum  power  cost 
reduction  by  the  use  of  plant  refinements  and  auxiliaries  when  it  can 
be  shown  that  additions  and  alterations  will  pay.  Specifications  are 
written  for  the  alteration  and  proposals  submitted. 

Fourth  year  Mechanical  Engineering. 

Shop  and  Factory  Work. 

Practical  Work  and  Directed  Study  in  the  Shops  and  Drafting  Eooms 
of  Eepresentative  Manufacturing  Establishments  with  Eeport — Each 
student  is  provided  with  a  printed  copy  of  the  things  to  be  studied  and 
reported  on  in  detail,  of  which  the  following  is  a  general  summary. 


90  TEACHING   SCIENTIFIC   MANAGEMENT. 

Machine  Shop.  Functional  operation,  characteristics  and  powering  of 
machine  tools,  capacities,  layout  of  shop,  size  of  shafting,  belting  and 
motors  for  independent  and  group  drive.  Eange  of  cutting  speeds,  feeds, 
depth  of  cut.  Shape  and  size  of  tools  used.  Eeport  on  specific  observa- 
tions on  time  of  setting  work,  time  of  forming  and  finishing,  number 
of  pieces  turned  out  per  hour.  Facilities  for  handling  work  at  the  ma- 
chine. Facilities  for  producing  pieces  in  quantity.  Hand  processes  for 
finishing  and  tools  used. 

Pattern  Shop.  Materials  of  which  patterns  are  made  and  methods  of 
treating.  Machine  tools  used  in  the  pattern  shop,  arrangement,  capacities, 
adaptability,  handling  and  storing  of  material  and  finished  product. 

Foundry  and  Forge,  Description  of  hand  and  machine  tools  and  appli- 
ances used  in  the  foundry  and  forge.  Compositing  and  treatment  of 
foundry  sands.  Methods  of  molding.  Time  involved.  Methods  of  power- 
ing, venting  and  chilling,  cooling  and  finishing,  handling  the  cupola. 
Composition  of  the  charges  and  mixtures,  temperatures,  pressures,  time 
required  to  charge,  to  melt,  to  pour,  cool  and  clean.  Appliances  in  the 
forge  shop.  Operation  of  power  hammers,  bull-dozers,  shears,  heating 
and  annealing  furnaces  and  hand  processes  of  forging.  Time  involved  in 
production. 

Drafting  Boom.  Standards  and  conventions  used.  Filing  and  marking 
of  drawings  and  recording  of  patterns.  Bills  of  material — parts  to  be 
made — standard  parts  in  stock. 

General  Management  and  Organization.  Methods  of  recording  time  of 
workmen  and  their  time  distribution  over  different  jobs.  Paying  of 
men,  methods,  rates,  forms  and  records  used.  Drawing  of  materials  used 
from  storeroom  and  charging  to  orders. 

Prerequisite  course  is  second  year  shop  work. 

Elevators  and  Conveyors.     One  hour. 

Mechanical  Handling  of  Solid  Materials  by  Standard  Elevating  and 
Conveying  Machinery,  Characteristics,  Speed,  Tonnage  and  h.p.  per  Ton, 
Computations  and  Adaptability  to  Special  Service — Hand  handling  of 
materials,  limits,  cost  and  conditions  warranting  use  of  machinery.  Con- 
tinuous conveyors,  screw,  bucket,  scrapers,  pusher,  belt  and  pneumatic 
types.  Intermittent  conveyors;  telephers,  rope  and  cable  ways,  cable 
cars.  Loaders,  unloaders,  storage  facilities.  Skips,  grab  buckets,  tips 
and  tipples.  Short  and  long  hoists,  friction  drum  and  direct  connected 
hoists.  Pneumatic  and  hydraulic  elevators  for  freight.  Fixed  and  travel- 
ling cranes.  Passenger  elevators,  rope  and  plunger  types.  Safety  de- 
vices. Automatic  weighers  of  materials;  coal  and  ore  storage  systems. 
Excavating  machine  and  dredges.  Coal  and  ore-handling  machinery. 
Railroad  terminal  and  steamship  loaders  and  unloaders.  Coke  oven 


WALTER  RAUTENSTRAUCH.  91 

chargers  and  dischargers.     Grain  handling.     Special  adaptation  to  ma- 
terial such  as  sand,  plaster,  glass,  cement,  broken  rock,  coal,  coke,  pack- 
ages, barrels,  corrosive,  erosive,  sticky,  packing,  and  hot  materials. 
Third  year  Mechanical  Engineering. 

Shop  Processes,  Tools  and  Time  Study.    Two  hours. 

The  Economic  Elements  in  Shop  Processes,  Time  and  Power  per  Unit 
of  Surface  Finished  or  Cut  and  per  Unit  of  Metal  Eemoved  with  the 
Conditions  for  Most  Economic  Production — Processes  in  the  shop,  func- 
tional operation  of  machine  tools  and  limits  of  economic  production, 
time  of  setting,  handling,  forming  and  finishing  of  parts  for  job  and 
repetition  work  in  quantity.  Limits  of  time,  power  and  cost  for  finish- 
ing surfaces  per  sq.  in.  and  removing  per  cu.  in.  and  per  Ib.  by  hand  and 
machine  operations.  Machine  for  performing  specific  operations,  their 
functional  operation,  capacities,  adaptability  and  rate  of  production. 
Conditions  warranting  jigs  and  fixtures  for  the  production  of  parts  in 
quantity  and  for  interchangeability.  Economy  of  portable  tools,  devices 
and  methods  of  inspection.  The  selection  of  economic  cutting  conditions 
and  analysis  of  recent  experiments.  Adaptation  of  economic  cutting 
speeds  to  machine  tools.  Labor-saving  devices  in  the  pattern  shop,  tools 
and  appliances  used,  capacity  and  adaptability;  built-up  patterns,  single- 
piece  patterns,  metal  patterns,  comparative  cost  and  life  of  each ;  patterns 
for  repetition  work,  rights  and  lefts,  a  line  of  sizes,  interchangeable  pat- 
terns, jobbing  patterns,  relative  economy  of  alternating  practice.  Eco- 
nomic production  in  the  foundry,  relative  value  of  various  methods  of 
molding  large  and  small  parts,  core  making,  venting,  pouring  and  hand- 
ling the  work,  managing  the  cupola.  Limits  of  labor,  power  and  fuel 
per  ton  of  castings  as  affected  by  size  and  form  and  fraction  chargeable 
to  pattern,  molding  and  cupola  and  finishing.  Processes  of  forging, 
hand  and  machine,  conditions  warranting  power  hammers,  hydraulic 
presses,  bull-dozers,  presses,  dies  and  forming  devices  for  the  production 
of  duplicate  and  standard  pieces.  Labor  and  power  per  Ib.  of  forging 
as  affected  by  tools,  size  and  form  of  work.  Heating  and  annealing 
furnaces,  consumption  of  gas  and  oil,  labor,  power  and  fuel  per  unit 
annealed.  Distribution  of  cost  of  machine  production  between  different 
processes,  power,  labor,  material  and  effect  of  shop  or  tool  capacity 
factor  on  fixed  charges. 

Organization  and  Management.    Three  hours. 

Manufacturing  Organizations  and  Methods  of  Cost  Accounting — Effect 
of  methods  of  manufacture  and  capacity  on  systems  of  management  of 
mills  and  factories.  Analysis  of  the  elements  of  factory  accounting  and 


92  TEACHING   SCIENTIFIC   MANAGEMENT. 

determination  of  the  factors  entering  into  the  cost  of  production. 
Methods  for  keeping  record  of  the  cost  of  labor  and  materials  in  the 
production  of  specific  articles.  The  determination  of  establishment 
charges.  Interpretation  of  costs  and  use  of  comparative  values.  Deter- 
mination of  costs  and  use  of  comparative  values.  Determination  of  the 
depreciation  of  buildings,  machinery,  patterns,  drawings  and  other  assets. 
Organization  and  functions  of  the  departments  of  the  business.  Pur- 
chase of  raw  material  and  sale  of  product.  Utilization  of  scrap  and 
waste.  Methods  of  labor  compensation.  Critical  analysis  of  the  methods 
of  accounting  in  representative  factories.  Factors  affecting  the  cost  of 
production. 

Fourth  year  Mechanical  and  Chemical  Engineering. 

Steam  Power  Plant,  Summer  Work. 

Eeport  based  on  not  less  than  six  weeks'  practical  work  in  an  Operat- 
ing Power  Plant,  including  the  Output,  Load  Conditions,  Labor  and  Ma- 
terial for  Operation  and  Maintenance,  Operating  Cost  per  Unit  and  the 
Essential  Dimensional  Eelations  between  the  Various  Units  and  Auxil- 
iaries Producing  this  Eesult— This  work  is  done  entirely  by  the  student 
in  the  field,  his  only  assistance  being  the  blank  report  form  which  is  put 
into  his  hands  after  a  brief  lecture  before  leaving  the  University  for  the 
vacation. 

Third  year  Mechanical  Engineering. 

Reference  to  the  catalogue  of  the  school  will  serve  to  show 
how  all  the  courses  have  been  prepared  with  a  view  to  that 
interrelation  of  subject  matter  so  necessary  to  the  broad  and 
comprehensive  treatment  of  engineering  problems.  While 
rigorous  treatment  of  the  laws  of  mathematics,  mechanics, 
physics  and  chemistry  obtains  in  the  subject  matter  of  all 
courses  yet  the  commercial  relations  and  limitations  in  which 
these  laws  operate  are  as  prominently  set  forth  for  the  pur- 
pose of  developing  that  judgment  so  necessary  to  their  proper 
use.  The  foundational  principles  of  engineering  practice  as 
in  the  practice  of  law  are  comparatively  few  while  their 
applications  and  interrelations  are  by  no  means  simple  nor 
permit  of  ready  interpretation.  Accordingly  therefore,  that 
the  practice  of  engineering  may  be  presented  from  the  broader 
point  of  view  and  that  the  economic  and  technological  aspects 
may  have  their  fullest  meaning,  there  is  incorporated  a  series 


WALTER  RAUTENSTRAUCH.  93 

of  courses,  the  treatment  of  which  is  according  to  the  system  of 
"Case  Law."  The  limitations  of  human  accomplishment  and 
the  necessity  for  authoritative  presentation  of  subject  matter 
required  in  the  search  for  underlying  fundamental  principles 
have  lead  to  the  handling  of  such  courses  by  men  who  are 
daily  practicing  in  each  of  these  fields  of  engineering  service. 
The  work  of  these  special  lecturers  is  not  accompanied  by  any 
departure  from  the  regular  methods  of  instruction  pursued  in 
other  courses  and  is  not  to  be  confused  with  the  general  system 
of  special  lectures  in  isolated  and  non-related  subjects  obtain- 
ing in  almost  all  of  our  universities  and  colleges.  The  prin- 
ciples of  economic  relations  intertwining  these  and  other 
courses  of  a  technological  nature  together  with  problems  of 
purely  commercial  aspect  are  again  brought  together  for  ex- 
position and  formulation  in  courses  dealing  with  the  use  of 
materials,  machinery  and  men  in  administering  to  the  needs 
of  the  commonwealth.  Thus  there  has  been  built  that  founda- 
tion upon  which  a  proper  consideration  of  the  problems  of 
production  will  rest  and  an  adequate  treatment  has  been  given 
to  that  body  of  principles  which  in  a  narrow  sense  is  popu- 
larly termed  the  "principles  of  scientific  management." 


TEACHING   SCIENTIFIC   MANAGEMENT   IN   THE 
TECHNICAL  SCHOOLS. 

BY  H.  F.  J.  POBTEB, 

Secretary  of  The  Efficiency  Society,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

In  order  to  treat  in  a  logical  manner  the  subject  which  has 
been  assigned  to  me  I  shall  first  define  what  I  understand 
scientific  management  to  be  and  then  state  how  I  think  it 
should  be  taught. 

As  I  understand  management,  it  is  the  second  of  the  two 
attributes  of  government,  the  first  being  its  form  or  organiza- 
tion, and  the  second  its  function  or  action.  In  order  to  have 
good  government,  there  must  first  be  the  right  kind  of  organi- 
zation. When  such  organization  operates  we  have  manage- 
ment. We  must  know,  therefore,  something  about  the  prin- 
ciples of  government  before  we  can  obtain  proper  organization, 
and  after  the  latter  is  secured,  then  management  is  possible, 
and  how  scientific  it  is,  will  depend  largely  on  the  perfection 
of  the  organization.  We  hear  nowadays  a  great  deal  about 
management,  systematic,  scientific  or  other,  but  very  little 
about  organization  of  any  kind,  and  yet,  as  I  have  stated,  the 
latter  is  the  more  important  of  the  two  attributes  of  govern- 
ment, because  without  it  the  former  can  not  be  obtained. 

Now  what  is  the  basis  of  government  which  involves  these 
subjects  to  which  I  shall  direct  your  attention?  Government 
involves  the  control  or  direction  of  people,  and  we  find  when 
we  study  its  history  that  there  are  several  kinds  of  govern- 
ment varying  in  their  fundamental  principles,  some  which 
include  the  element  of  human  nature  in  their  program,  while 
others  fail  to  do  so ;  the  first,  of  necessity,  bringing  about  suc- 
cessful results;  the  others  constantly  resulting  in  failure. 

In  the  first  place,  we  know  that  man  is,  by  nature,  a  social 
animal,  and  as  such,  seeks  the  company  of  those  of  his  fellows 

94 


H.  F.   J.  PORTER.  95 

having  a  common  interest.  That  common  interest  may  be  for 
mutual  benefit  or  for  protection  from  a  common  enemy.  This 
natural  instinct  causes  men  to  come  together  in  groups.  Now 
as  a  natural  sequence  of  this  formation  of  a  group  for  one  or 
the  other  of  the  above  purposes  there  is  evolved  a  personality 
who  is  generally  recognized  as  best  fitted  for  directing  the 
movement  in  hand.  This  is  the  method  of  establishing  gov- 
ernment by  leadership  through  a  perfectly  natural  process. 
This  is  the  earliest  and  most  primitive  form  of  patriarchal  or 
tribal  government,  and  exists  to-day  whenever  small  groups 
of  people  have  simple  matters  to  be  attended  to,  and  even  in 
more  complex  affairs  where  a  committee  takes  up  a  project. 
It  is  not,  however,  a  stable  form  of  government  owing  to  the 
changing  interests  of  the  members  of  the  group  or  their  loss 
of  confidence  in  their  leader. 

Experience  proves  also  that  when  a  leader  finds  that  he  is 
for  some  reason  losing  his  power,  he  makes  an  effort  to  retain 
it  and  that  then  usually  serious  consequences  ensue.  If,  for 
instance,  a  rival  aspirant  to  his  leadership  threatens  his  over- 
throw, he  resists  the  efforts  to  replace  him.  This  resistance 
leads  to  his  drawing  closer  to  him  his  adherents  and  apportion- 
ing among  them  privileges  in  return  for  which  they  agree  to 
control  certain  smaller  groups  which  he  can  no  longer  control. 
Or  it  may  be  that  the  original  group  has  grown  so  large  that 
the  leader  can  no  longer  keep  in  personal  contact  with  all  of 
its  members,  and  is  thus  forced  to  divide  among  those  who, 
he  feels,  are  competent  to  assume  the  responsibility,  the  con- 
trol of  such  groups  as  become  formed  by  one  cause  or  another. 
Here,  it  should  be  noted,  that  a  radical  change  has  taken  place 
in  the  form  of  government,  and  in  this  change  may  be  seen 
a  fundamental  difference  in  the  principles  dominating  the 
two  forms,  one  kind  being  that  of  the  group  voluntarily  select- 
ing a  leader  and,  on  account  of  his  being  their  choice,  assum- 
ing responsibility  for  him  and  therefore  according  him  their 
earnest  support;  the  other,  that  of  the  group  having  imposed 
upon  them  the  choice  of  another  person  and  being  compelled 
to  do  what  he,  who  represents  interests  entirely  different  from 


96  TEACHING   SCIENTIFIC    MANAGEMENT. 

theirs,  may  dictate.  This  change  from  volition  to  compulsion 
characterized  the  development  in  government  which  took  place 
when  a  tribe  became  a  nation,  and  the  patriarch  a  monarch. 
It  is  monarchy  or  oligarchy  depending  upon  whether  the  ulti- 
mate authority  is  vested  in  one  individual  or  several.  It  is 
the  change  which  takes  place  in  the  control  of  every  group 
when  it  grows  so  large  that  one  cannot  keep  in  close  touch 
with  all  its  members.  One  induces  loyal  support,  the  other 
disaffection;  one  is,  therefore,  the  absolute  antithesis  of  the 
other.  The  psychology  of  the  situation  gradually  developed 
a  return  to  first  principles  by  a  change  to  democracy  where 
the  people  themselves  say  who  shall  govern  them  and  what 
shall  happen  to  them. 

In  the  small  industrial  groups  which  formed  themselves 
during  the  second  quarter  of  the  last  century  throughout  the 
eastern  states  of  our  country,  the  master  craftsman  and  his 
men  worked  together  in  close  association  and  in  friendly 
accord.  This  was  the  patriarchal  stage  of  industrial  govern- 
ment. When,  however,  in  the  middle  of  the  century,  the 
steam  engine  and  the  steel  rail  made  industry  no  longer  de- 
pendent upon  the  stream  for  water  power  and  transportation, 
factories  started  up  by  the  thousand  at  the  site  of  the  raw 
material,  and  .the  industrial  groups  grew  to  large  proportions. 
So  great  was  the  demand  for  workmen  to  compose  these 
groups  that  the  supply  in  this  country  was  soon  exhausted, 
and  the  labor  market  of  Europe  was  tapped.  Then  came  about 
the  change  in  the  control  of  the  factory  group  which  I  have 
indicated  had  occurred  in  the  political  group.  The  master 
craftsman  became  the  general  manager  and  delegated  his 
authority  to  a  superintendent  and  foreman,  who,  instead  of 
being  leaders  of  the  groups  over  which  they  were  placed, 
became  their  drivers.  This  was  the  monarchic  stage  in  in- 
dustrial government.  The  foreign  element,  of  which  these 
groups  became  largely  composed,  were  accustomed  to  sub- 
servience and  readily  complied  with  the  form  of  industrial 
government  which  they  found  established. 

Government  has  always  been  an  art,  and  probably  always 


H.  F.   J.   PORTER.  97 

will  be  as  long  as  human  nature  is  involved  in  the  relationship 
between  the  governor  and  the  governed.  Nevertheless,  out  of 
the  experiences  of  the  past  there  are  now  gradually  being 
established,  certain  principles  which  are  considered  funda- 
mental in  the  application  of  this  art.  In  the  days  of  which  we 
are  speaking,  however,  when  men  were  needed  to  control  and 
direct  these  factory  groups,  no  such  principles  had  even  been 
considered.  The  situation  presented  thousands  of  industrial 
groups  composed  of  hundreds  of  thousands  of  subservient 
individuals  to  be  controlled,  without  anyone  informed  of  the 
essential  principles  of  either  organization  or  management,  to 
control  them.  This  situation  was  met  by  placing  over  these 
groups,  men  who  seemed  to  possess  inherent  powers  of  control. 
In  some  instances  the  self  devised  methods  of  these  men  were 
successful,  but  in  the  great  majority  they  failed.  In  the  latter 
cases  compulsion  was  resorted  to  in  an  effort  to  make  the 
methods  which  were  applied  succeed.  When  we  realize  that 
the  individual  in  the  factory  is  absolutely  subservient  to  this 
control  during  the  greater  number  of  his  waking  hours  it 
is  evident  how  serious  may  be  its  effect  upon  him. 

So  we  see  that  the  history  of  the  development  of  political 
government  has  been  paralleled  by  that  of  industrial  govern- 
ment, that  human  nature  is  the  element  entering  into  both 
and  that  the  problems  involved  in  both  cases  are  group  prob- 
lems which  vary  according  to  the  size  of  the  group.  In  polit- 
ical government,  the  people,  realizing  the  fundamental  fallacy 
in  the  change  from  leadership  to  ruler,  have  in  part  rectified 
it  in  practically  every  country  in  the  world,  Russia  being  now 
the  sole  exception,  by  the  substitution  of  democracy  where  the 
consent  of  the  governed  must  be  secured  regarding  the  meth- 
ods of  control  which  are  applied  to  them.  But  this  change 
has  not  come  about  without  the  stubborn  resistance  of  the 
ruler  to  the  abdication  of  his  powers.  Nor  has  the  complete 
change  as  yet  taken  place  according  to  its  advocates,  who 
claim  that  the  faults  democracy  now  possesses  can  be  eliminated 
only  by  the  application  of  more  democracy,  and  that  this  will 
come  about  by  publicity  of  the  facts,  thus  establishing  en- 


98  TEACHING   SCIENTIFIC    MANAGEMENT. 

lightened  public  opinion,  which,  in  the  long  run,  is  the  im- 
pelling force  which  controls  the  new  system.  On  this  point 
Hon.  James  Bryce  says  in  "The  American  Commonwealth' ': 

"Towering  over  presidents  and  state  governors,  over  Congress  and 
state  legislatures,  over  conventions  and  the  vast  machinery  of  party, 
public  opinion  stands  out  in  the  United  States  as  the  great  source  of 
power,  the  master  of  servants  who  tremble  before  it.  ...  It  grows  up 
not  in  Congress,  not  in  state  legislatures,  not  in  those  great  conventions 
which  frame  platforms  and  choose  candidates,  but  at  large  among  the 
people.  It  is  expressed  in  voices  everywhere.  It  rules  as  a  pervading 
and  impalpable  power  like  the  ether  which  passes  through  all  things. 
It  binds  all  the  parts  of  the  complicated  system  together  and  gives  them 
whatever  unity  of  aim  and  action  they  possess. " 

And  now  since  the  principles  entering  political  government 
have  been  shown  to  be  the  same  as  those  involved  in  industrial 
government,  experience  is  leading  the  students  of  government 
to  recommend  that  in  industrial  government  similar  develop- 
ments should  take  place,  that  compulsory  methods  should  give 
way  to  more  democratic  methods.  This  thought  is  expressed 
in  the  report  of  the  "Special  Committee"  appointed  by  the 
House  of  Representatives  in  Washington  "to  investigate  the 
Taylor  and  other  systems  of  shop  management"  where  the 
statement  is  made  that  "government  in  a  mill  should  be  like 
government  in  a  state  'with  the  consent  of  the  governed.'  " 

This  nation  has  changed  during  the  past  one  hundred  years 
from  an  agricultural  and  trading  nation  to  an  industrial  one. 
Our  legislatures,  state  and  national,  are  devoting  themselves 
to  questions  almost  entirely  affecting  our  industries.  Our 
public  school  system,  our  free  press,  and  our  public  forms 
have  given  the  foreign  element,  which  flocked  to  our  shores  to 
meet  the  industrial  demand,  an  insight  into  the  benefits  of  self 
government.  These  foreigners,  for  so  many  years  subservient 
to  compulsory  control,  have  become  informed  as  to  the  prin- 
ciples of  political  democracy  and  they  have  now  come  to  realize 
that  although  they  are  in  a  free  country,  yet  during  the 
greater  number  of  their  waking  hours  they  are  under  personal 
control  regarding  which  they  have  nothing  to  say.  They  have 
become  restless,  and  are  expressing  their  dissatisfaction. 


H.   F.   J.   PORTER.  99 

At  this  very  time  we  see  taking  place  in  parallel,  two  very 
portentous  movements.  One  is  political  in  which  the  rank 
and  file  of  the  people  of  the  two  dominating  parties  are  led  by 
progressive  politicians,  who,  having  a  great  following,  demand 
that  the  people  shall  in  no  sense  be  governed,  but  that  the 
representatives  of  the  people  shall  carry  out  the  will  of  the 
people.  They  believe  that  the  mass  of  men  are  better  able  to 
govern  themselves  than  are  the  few  to  govern  them.  That 
the  perils  from  the  ignorance  of  the  governed  are  less  than 
the  perils  from  the  selfishness  of  the  governors.  The  other 
movement  inspired  by  the  same  thought  is  industrial,  led  by 
progressive  men  in  the  field  of  industry  demanding  that  the 
workers  shall  be  represented  in  the  councils  of  the  employers. 
Resistance  is  being  encountered  by  both  these  movements 
raised  by  the  interests  which  have  so  long  been  entrenched 
behind  special  privilege.  Great  changes  do  not  take  place 
suddenly.  It  is  well  that  they  should!  be  evolutionary  rather 
than  revolutionary.  "We  must  now,  as  students  of  history 
and  of  events  and  affairs,  take  cognizance  of  these  movements, 
analyze  them  and  determine  the  direction  in  which  they  are 
tending  and  from  our  deductions  devise  methods  of  directing 
them. 

When  we  have  determined  the  form  of  democratic  govern- 
ment which  we  are  to  have  in  our  nation  and  in  our  state  and 
municipal  groups,  the  logic  of  the  situation  should  lead  us  to 
extend  it  to  our  industrial  groups.  We  can  no  longer  harbor 
industrial  monarchies  and  oligarchies  in  our  political  democ- 
racy. The  inconsistence  is  too  apparent  to  be  longer  retained. 
People  who  have  learned  to  think  become  discontented  with 
inconsistencies.  The  psychology  of  the  situation  is  becoming 
understood.  In  dealing  with  human  nature  in  government 
the  latter  must  be  taken  into  consideration.  Dr.  Joseph  H. 
Odell,  in  a  recent  address,  said  on  the  subject  of  discontent, 
"Well,  supposing  we  let  it  alone,  what  will  happen?  One  of 
two  things.  In  the  first  place  it  may  settle  down  into  a 
permanent  and  paralyzing  pessimism  and  consign  men  to  a 
life  of  spiritless  drudgery.  They  will  become  an  animate,  but 


100  TEACHING   SCIENTIFIC    MANAGEMENT. 

soulless  part  of  the  vast  mechanism  of  industrial  society. 
Life,  upon  those  terms,  is  little  better  than  death.  On  the 
other  hand,  this  discontent  may  become  suddenly  explosive 
and  result  in  anarchy.  Long  brooding  over  the  ills  that  are 
not  understood,  changes  a  man  into  an  Ishmael  and  turns  his 
hand  against  every  man's  hand.  Discontent  is  a  negative 
quality  and  when  a  negative  quality  becomes  active,  it  grows 
destructive.  "We  must  know  how  to  transmute  a  negative 
element  into  a  positive.  We  must  change  discontent  into 
desire.  We  have  done  this  to  a  large  degree  in  political  affairs 
and  we  should  use  the  same  means  in  our  industrial  affairs." 

The  form  of  our  government  is  its  attribute  which  we  call 
organization.  Without  a  well-defined  organization  we  can 
have  no  well-defined  system  of  management.  A  well-defined 
organization  can  be  shown  on  a  chart  and  any  organization 
which  cannot  be  thus  visualized  is  defective  and  the  manage- 
ment resulting  from  a  defective  organization  is  bound  to  be 
defective. 

A  government  is  like  a  coaching  outfit.  The  coach  must 
be  built  right  for  its  purpose  with  all  its  four  wheels  of  the 
same  size  and  its  axles  straight  and  parallel.  The  horses 
must  be  well  matched  and  strong  enough  to  pull  the  coach. 
One  must  not  be  a  dray  horse  and  another  a  trotter.  The 
harness  must  be  properly  fitted  to  the  horses  so  that  the 
collars  will  not  chafe  and  irritate  them  and  the  traces  must 
be  of  the  same  length,  so  as  to  pull  evenly  and  not  permit 
one  horse  to  get  his  leg  over  the  other  horse's  trace  and  inter- 
fere with  him.  If  all  of  these  requirements  are  not  met  there 
will  be  danger  of  the  outfit  not  running  straight.  Merely 
speaking  to  the  horses  kindly  or  patting  them  on  the  neck  or 
giving  them  sugar  or  plying  the  whip  is  not  going  to  reach 
the  cause  of  the  trouble.  But  when  this  organization  is 
properly  arranged  so  that  everything  is  in  its  right  place 
without  overlapping  or  interference,  then  a  skilled  coachman 
may  get  up  onto  the  box  and  take  the  reins  and  guide  the 
coach  over  such  roads  as  he  may  meet.  There  is  some  assur- 
ance that  it  will  stay  in  the  middle  of  the  road  without  any 


H.   F.   J.   PORTER.  101 

inherent  tendency  to  go  over  into  the  ditch  at  either  side. 
The  man  on  the  box  is  the  manager  and  upon  his  general 
knowledge  of  conditions  and  his  skill  in  handling  his  organiza- 
tion will  depend  the  efficiency  of  its  team  work.  This  man  Is 
an  entirely  different  one,  however,  from  the  one  who  designed 
the  coach  or  the  harness,  although  he  should  have  very  much 
to  say  about  the  selection  of  the  horses. 

It  is  not  my  province  here  to  chart  the  various  schemes  of 
organization  which  are  adapted  to  different  shop  conditions. 
It  will  be  sufficient  for  present  purposes  to  say  that,  generally 
speaking,  any  organization  has  four  basic  departments  which 
may  be  comparable  to  the  four  horses  of  the  coach.  They  are 
the  financial,  the  sales,  the  production  and  the  record  depart- 
ments. Each  of  these  should  be  as  independent  in  its  action 
as  any  one  of  the  horses,  but  all  should  be  so  related  by  their 
harness  as  to  constitute  a  team. 

The  duty  of  the  first  of  these  departments  is  to  collect  and 
disburse  money;  to  collect  the  money  for  the  product  which 
the  second,  or  sales  department,  has  disposed  of  and  to  dis- 
burse money  to  all  the  other  departments  for  the  work  which 
they  have  done.  The  duty  of  the  second  is  to  obtain  orders 
for  work  for  the  third  or  production  department  to  perform. 

This  latter  department  converts  the  orders  received,  into 
finished  goods.  It  is  dependent  upon  the  second  and  the 
first  departments  for  its  existence  just  as  the  second  and 
first  are  dependent  upon  it,  and  all  three  must  be  so  equally 
balanced  as  to  be  normally  independent  or  there  will  be  a 
maladjustment  which  will  cause  trouble. 

The  fourth  or  record  department  is  intended  to  keep  account 
of  all  that  transpires  in  the  other  departments  so  as  to  main- 
tain this  balance.  It  receives  all  the  raw  material;  holds  it 
until  it  is  needed  by  the  production  department,  keeps  track 
of  what  the  latter  does  with  it,  takes  it  back  as  finished 
product,  hands  it  over  to  the  sales  department  and  tells  the 
financial  department  how  much  it  has  already  cost,  how  much 
more  it  will  cost  before  it  is  sold  and  how  much  should  be 
added  for  profit  in  order  that  all  the  departments  may  be  kept 
in  good  condition  continuously. 


102  TEACHING   SCIENTIFIC    MANAGEMENT. 

Now  a  chart  of  organization  of  the  kind  outlined  should  be 
drafted  before  any  industrial  enterprise  gets  farther  than  the 
stage  of  being  contemplated  in  order  that  it  may  be  properly 
capitalized  and  promoted.  It  is  essential  that  such  a  chart 
should  exist  in  every  enterprise  and  be  in  constant  view  for 
reference  but  I  think  I  am  safe  in  saying  that  99  per  cent,  of 
the  enterprises  now  in  existence  have  none,  and  50  per  cent,  of 
the  managers  have  never  heard  of  such  a  thing.  The  man  who 
can  do  this  work  to-day  is  rare.  He  is  not  taught  in  any  school 
of  which  I  know.  He  is  the  man  to  develop  the  organization 
before  which  no  management,  which  can  have  the  slightest 
claim  to  being  scientific,  can  come  into  effect.  I  believe  he 
should  have  a  university  education  first  and  a  special  post- 
graduate course  in  business  organization  subsequently.  But 
suppose  we  have  secured  such  a  proper  or  scientific  organiza- 
tion and  we  need  a  man  to  operate  it  or  perform  the  work  of 
managing  it,  what  kind  of  an  education  should  he  have?  In 
the  first  place  he  should  be  capable  of  knowing  all  about  the 
operation  of  the  organization,  i.  e.,  the  physical  part  of  the 
chart  so  that  the  finances,  the  advertising,  the  celling,  the 
methods  of  production  (including  the  purchasing),  the  record 
keeping  (including  the  stock  keeping  and  the  cost  accounting) 
are  working  as  they  were  intended  to  work. 

There  are  schools  which  have  been  teaching  these  subjects 
independently  for  some  time.  There  are  schools  of  finance, 
schools  of  salesmanship,  schools  of  mechanical  engineering  and 
schools  of  accountancy.  These  schools  make  specialists,  but 
there  is  no  school  that  I  know  of  that  teaches  all  of  these 
branches  and  their  interrelations  so  that  there  is  not,  there- 
fore, any  school  that  teaches  the  elements  of  management. 
There  are  colleges  and  universities  in  which  lectures  in  some 
of  these  branches  are  given  by  practical  men  who  have  special- 
ized in  them,  but  from  all  that  I  can  gather  from  the  graduates 
of  these  courses  and  from  the  deans  of  the  schools  themselves, 
these  courses  are  as  yet  only  in  the  primitive  or  formative 
stage.  So  we  see  that  teaching  the  subject  of  government,  of 
which  organization  and  management  are  only  parts,  has  not  as 


H.  F.   J.   PORTER.  103 

yet  been  begun.  There  are  not  yet,  to  my  knowledge,  ade- 
quate institutions  for  preparing  men  to  be  managers.  Nor 
are  there  ways  of  preparing  men  to  go  out  into  the  field  to 
diagnose  the  troubles  which  afflict  existing  industrial  enter- 
prises. This  will  account  for  the  fact  that  so  many  essays  on 
the  part  of  "efficiency"  or  "industrial"  engineers  fail.  They 
may  be  competent  to  improve  methods  existing  in  the  pro- 
duction department  but  by  doing  so  they  simply  over-develop 
one  of  the  four  wheels  of  the  coach  which  cannot  run  satis- 
factorily with  one  wheel  larger  than  the  rest.  The  financial, 
the  selling  and  the  record  departments  must  be  developed 
equally  to  obtain  successful  results,  and  the  education  of  the 
day  does  not  equip  a  man  for  all  these  fields.  On  the  con- 
trary, the  tendency  of  the  times  is  to  develop  specialists. 

There  have  been  men  who  have  realized  this  condition  and 
have  organized  groups  of  specialists  in  these  various  fields  who 
have  been  able  through  the  correlation  of  their  efforts  to  ac- 
complish success  where  the  single  specialist  who  has  tried  to 
cover  the  whole  field  has  failed.  This,  to  my  mind,  is  the  best 
method  of  reaching  the  situation  in  the  present  emergency. 
If  I  am  right  in  my  conjecture,  efforts  should  be  made  to 
clarify  the  situation  and  let  it  be  understood  that  schools  of 
government  should  be  established  and  managers  should  go 
there  to  learn  the  principles  of  organization  and  management. 
When  they  have  gained  a  knowledge  of  these  principles,  they 
should  realize  that  they  will  need  specialists  as  heads  of  their 
departments  of  finance  and  selling,  of  production  and  record 
and  they  then,  and  then  only,  will  be  able  to  secure  efficient 
team  work.  "We  must  realize  that  the  great  body  of  the  people 
are  employees  and  that  the  employer  has  a  greater  effect  upon 
his  employees  physically,  morally  and  mentally,  owing  to  the 
continuity  of  his  influence  over  them  during  the  greater  num- 
ber of  their  waking  hours,  than  their  physician,  their  minister 
or  their  teacher.  Each  of  these  must  have  a  diploma  or  a  li- 
cense, therefore  the  manager  whose  responsibilities  are  greater, 
should  not  be  allowed  to  assume  them  until  he  is  properly 
equipped  to  do  so.  We  now  know  that  every  ruined  health, 


104  TEACHING   SCIENTIFIC    MANAGEMENT. 

every  crippled  body,  every  demoralized  or  warped  character, 
every  blunted  mind  is  an  industrial  or  social  waste  and  a 
charge  upon  the  community,  and  yet  our  industrial  managers 
of  the  past  and  present  have  been  allowed  to  furnish  this  waste 
in  increasing  quantities  every  year.  To  meet  these  industrial 
responsibilities  not  only  calls  for  a  more  scientifically-trained 
intelligence  in  the  managerial  chair  of  the  single  industrial 
enterprise  than  has  heretofore  been  supplied,  but  it  requires  a 
man  capable  of  organizing  all  the  industrial  enterprises  com- 
prising an  industry  so  that,'  as  a  whole,  it  will  be  a  benefit 
rather  than  an  injury  to  the  State  which,  grants  charters  for 
its  existence.  To  do  this  properly  he  must  understand  the 
industrial  group  problems  in  which  his  enterprise  is  a  factor. 

It  is  generally  understood  that  a  manager  of  the  modern 
type  is  meeting  the  requirements  of  scientific  management  if 
he  operates  his  individual  enterprise  efficiently  by  reducing 
his  wastes  of  time,  effort  and  material  to  a  minimum  so 
that  his  product  can  be  marketed  at  a  fair  profit.  As  means 
to  these  ends  he  establishes  well-constructed  factory  buildings, 
he  maintains  sanitary  conditions,  he  supplies  an  environment 
for  his  employees  that  is  beneficent.  He  introduces  systems 
of  functional  management  and  time  and  motion  study  to 
ensure  fair  treatment  and  equable  wage  determination.  He 
institutes  works  committees  composed  of  employees  and  installs 
a  suggestion  system. 

All  of  these  features  are  excellent  as  far  as  they  go,  but 
they  go  nowhere  in  meeting  the  larger  serious  group  problems 
which  exist  and  which  no  efforts  have  as  yet  been  made  to 
solve,  and  which  cannot  be  solved  in  any  one  factory  or  in  any 
group  of  factories  such  as  compose  a  trust,  but  only  in  the 
harmonious  cooperation  of  all  the  factories  which  compose  an 
industry  through  the  collective  administration  of  the  industry 
as  a  whole.  A  knowledge  of  how  to  accomplish  work  of  this 
kind  involves  questions  of  government  and  embodies  studies 
which  have  little  to  do  with  the  scientific  management  of  a 
shop.  They  are  not  especially  germane  to  technical  schools, 
but,  beginning  in  the  primary  schools  and  continuing  in  the 


H.   F.   J.   PORTER.  105 

secondary  and  high  schools,  should  follow  in  the  college,  the 
university  and  the  postgraduate  school. 

In  order  that  I  may  make  myself  clear,  let  me  show  by  a 
specific  case  how  intimately  the  affairs  of  a  community  and  an 
industry  are  related  and  how  helpless  is  the  manager  of  a 
single  enterprise  in  that  industry  with  regard  to  some  of  the 
troubles  with  which  he  has  to  cope.  The  cloak  and  suit 
industry  in  New  York  City  comprises  some  two  thousand 
shops  of  various  sizes,  employing  all  the  way  from  25  to 
300  hands,  80  per  cent,  of  whom  are  men.  The  work  is  what 
is  termed  light  manufacturing,  in  which,  outside  of  what  is 
performed  on  sewing  machines,  the  work  is  done  by  hand. 
The  employees  are  mainly  Italians  and  Russian  Jews.  These 
people  came  from  Europe  with  their  packs  on  their  backs,  and 
went  directly  into  the  congested  East  Side  tenements  of  the 
city  to  live  and  worked  in  the  cloak  factories  under  sweat  shop 
conditions.  Many,  being  of  a  thrifty  nature,  saved  money 
until  they  possessed  enough  to  open  sweat  shops  of  their  own. 
Thus  practically  over  night  they  stepped  from  the  employee  to 
the  employer  class.  All  they  know  about  organization  and 
management  they  learned  from  their  employer,  who  used 
sweat  shop  principles.  They  felt  that  the  only  way  they  could 
succeed  in  the  market  was  by  more  severe  "  sweating "  than 
their  competitors  practiced.  The  result  of  this  unrestricted 
competition  was  starvation  wages,  unlimited  hours  of  work, 
unsanitary  shops,  unhygienic  conditions  of  living  and  un- 
speakable misery.  Such  a  state  of  affairs  would  have  been 
bad  enough  if  it  had  been  continuous,  but  each  year  it  was 
made  immeasurably  worse  by  two  periods  of  enforced  idle- 
ness. The  warm  weather  trade  developed  a  busy  season 
through  three  and  one  half  months  in  the  spring,  followed  by 
two  and  one  half  months  of  idleness  in  the  summer;  the  cold 
weather  trade  caused  a  busy  three  and  one  half  months  in  the 
fall  and  two  and  one  half  months  idleness  in  the  winter. 
When  it  is  realized  that  scarcely  a  living  wage  was  paid  dur- 
ing the  busy  seasons,  owing  to  the  overcrowded  condition  of 
the  labor  market,  it  can  readily  be  imagined  how  poorly  pre- 


106  TEACHING   SCIENTIFIC    MANAGEMENT. 

pared  financially  the  employees  were  to  meet  the  enforced  idle- 
ness of  the  slack  seasons.  Affairs  finally  reached  such  a  pass 
that  they  could  no  longer  be  borne,  when  a  strike  ensued.  It 
was  one  of  the  most  severe  ever  experienced  in  New  York  City. 
It  lasted  some  twelve  weeks,  bankrupting  many  of  the  employ- 
ers, while  some  of  the  employees  died  from  privation.  Finally 
the  merchants  who  needed  the  product  of  the  factories  brought 
the  strike  to  a  close  by  the  formation  of  an  association  of  the 
employers  and  an  affiliation  of  the  various  unions  of  em- 
ployees. Each  of  these  two  bodies  appointed  two  representa- 
tives to  a  joint  board  and  with  them  on  this  board  they  asked 
three  public  spirited  citizens  to  sit.  This  board  was  asked  to 
consider  the  situation  and  recommend  remedies. 

We  are  not  apt  to  realize  how  large  some  of  these  light 
manufacturing  industries  are.  In  the  one  described  above,  for 
instance,  the  2,000  shops  contained  80,000  employees,  who, 
with  their  families,  constituted  an  industrial  community  of 
200,000  people,  as  large  as  the  city  of  Providence  or  Indian- 
apolis. When  we  consider  that  this  number  of  people,  or  a 
very  large  proportion  of  them,  were  thrown  onto  the  City  of 
New  York  for  support  twice  each  year  and  that  this  is  only 
one  of  several  other  industries  in  which  similar  seasonal  fluc- 
tuations occur,  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  city's  charity 
organizations  are  so  strained  that  the  almshouse,  the  work- 
house and  the  jails  are  crowded ;  that  the  gambling  house  and 
policy  shop  and  pool  room  thrive;  that  the  saloon  and  dis- 
orderly house  abound ;  that  the  bread  line  and  the  park  bench 
are  filled. 

The  seasonal  fluctuation  is  only  one  of  the  difficulties  with 
which  the  manager  in  every  industrial  enterprise  has  to  con- 
tend and  which  cannot  be  remedied  even  by  any  amount  of 
scientific  management  in  his  individual  plant  but  only  by  a 
control  affecting  the  whole  industry.  The  democratic  prin- 
ciple of  having  the  employee  represented  in  the  councils  of  the 
industry,  works  well  in  the  instance  just  referred  to  and  in 
others  as  well.  The  illustration  I  have  given  is  only  one  of 
several  which  I  might  mention  of  industries  which  have  done 


H.   F.   J.   POUTER.  107 

the  same  thing.  But  all  about  us  we  see  wastes  occasioned  by 
others  who  have  not  done  it.  By  some  of  these  wastes  our 
high  cost  of  commodities  is  easily  explained. 

In  the  block  where  I  live  in  New  York  City  there  are  twenty 
dwelling  houses,  and  an  apartment  house  in  which  there  are 
twenty-four  families.  Every  morning  there  come  into  that 
block  eight  different  milk  companies'  wagons,  four  ice  com- 
panies' wagons,  six  grocery  companies'  wagons,  etc.  The 
question  of  distribution  can  be  settled  only  by  organizing 
these  various  industries  so  that  the  milk  industry,  the  ice 
industry,  the  grocery  industry  do  not  duplicate  their  truck- 
ing in  such  a  ridiculous  manner.  This  means  that  we  must 
educate  our  people  in  the  principles  of  political  and  industrial 
science,  beginning  in  the  primary  school  and  extending  all 
the  way  up  into  the  postgraduate  schools  of  business  adminis- 
tration. People  should  know  that  the  cure  of  our  present 
troubles  will  not  be  by  breaking  up  our  industrial  combina- 
tions but  by  fostering  further  combinations  where  labor  and 
capital  are  represented  under  public  supervision.  No  man 
should  be  allowed  to  become  a  manager  until  he  has  completed 
a  course  in  one  of  the  graduate  schools.  No  enterprise  should 
be  allowed  to  exist  until  it  has  secured  a  license  obligating  it 
to  meet  certain  requirements  and  if  it  lapses  in  observing 
them  the  license  should  be  revoked.  This  is  what  I  think 
should  be  included  in  a  knowledge  of  scientific  management, 
the  only  kind  that  will  be  really  effective  in  the  efficient  opera- 
tion of  industry. 

The  Efficiency  Society,  three  months  old,  with  already  over 
1,000  members,  is  now  inaugurating  a  campaign  of  investi- 
gation into  the  results  of  present  methods  of  management  in 
industrial  establishments  following  up  the  legislative  investi- 
gation carried  out  by  Congressman  Eedfield  last  winter.  A 
frank  and  generous  contribution  of  experiences  is  hoped  for 
by  employers,  employees,  and  efficiency  engineers.  A  con- 
ference on  the  subject  will  be  held  in  the  fall,  at  which  time 
it  is  expected,  sufficient  data  will  have  been  collected  to  be 
analyzed  and  studied,  and  deductions  made  for  intelligent 
discussion.  We  trust  that  the  results  will  be  most  helpful. 


A  BROADENED  VIEW  OF  EFFICIENCY  IN 
ENGINEERING  INSTRUCTION. 

BY    LEWIS    J.    JOHNSON, 
Professor  of  Civil  Engineering,  Harvard  University. 

I  certainly  favor  efficiency  in  engineering  instruction  as  well 
as  in  other  things.  I  believe  that  we  owe  a  great  debt  already 
to  Mr.  Taylor,  Mr.  Gilbreth  and  the  rest  for  what  they 
have  done  to  wake  us  up  and  show  us  the  way  on  these  lines. 
Particularly  do  I  rejoice  that  Messrs.  Taylor  and  Gilbreth 
recognize  as  indispensable  the  cultivation  of  good  will  between 
employer  and  employee  by  simply  making  it  automatic  with 
honest  and  intelligent  efforts  for  just  and  fair  relations.  They 
see  the  moral  and  human  side,  hence  I  believe  that  they  are 
in  a  fair  way  to  lead  us  to  success. 

But  to  my  mind  efficiency  is  a  pretty  broad  subject,  broader 
than  mere  questions  of  economical  production  and  trans- 
portation. It  involves  to  an  equally  high  degree  the  cor- 
rect distribution  of  emphasis  and  attention.  This,  to  my 
way  of  thinking,  means  a  high  degree  of  emphasis  and  atten- 
tion upon  the  basic,  but  sadly  neglected  (when  not  mis- 
directed, perverted,  or  sterilized)  lines  of  activity,  political 
economy  and  the  science  of  government. 

For  while,  of  course,  it  profits  us  much  to  extend  our 
already  relatively  efficient  means  of  production,  our  work  will 
fall  far  short  of  its  purpose  if  we  do  not  do  something  to 
put  our  whole  industrial  and  political  structure  on  a  firmer 
basis  through  getting  in  line  with  the  fundamental  laws  of 
justice  and  human  nature.  If  this  be  done,  I  feel  confident 
that  progress  toward  self-sustaining  industrial  order  and 
peace  will  be  not  only  possible  but  rapid  and  certain.  Other- 
wise our  present  chaotic  conditions  can  hardly  fail  to  grow 
worse.  The  "  conservative, "  as  he  loves  to  call  himself,  who 

108 


LEWIS  J.  JOHNSON.  109 

seeks  quiet  and  peace  by  sitting  on  the  social  safety-valve,  and 
his  compeer  in  social  value,  the  man  who  seeks  to  secure  relief 
for  bad  conditions  by  putting  grit  into  the  bearings  of  his 
employer's  machinery,  are  both  abroad  in  the  world.  The 
normal  man  must  begin  to  put  efficiency  into  his  citizenship 
if  we  are  to  find  the  true  way  out. 

No  one,  whether  lawyer,  clergyman,  journalist,  office- 
seeker,  office-holder  or  the  ordinary  academic  essayist,  is  so 
well  equipped,  I  believe,  to  deal  with  this  great  field  of  scien- 
tific management  fundamentally  and  constructively  as  the 
man  with  the  engineer's  or  the  applied  science  man's  train- 
ing and  attitude  of  mind.  If  we  are  to  have  a  society  in 
which  securely  to  practice  the  fine  and  noble  art  of  scientific 
management  in  the  production  of  wealth,  the  scientific  rather 
than  the  traditional  point  of  view  must,  in  my  opinion,  get 
into  effect  in  our  biggest  and  most  far-reaching  public 
relations. 

Our  customary  habit  of  thought  in  business  and  commercial 
relations  is  still  nearly  as  greedy,  because  as  misguided,  as  in 
the  time  of  the  Pharaohs.  Our  political  machinery,  even 
in  this  land  of  progress,  has  been  but  little  improved  since  the 
invention  of  the  steam-engine.  Here  I  believe  is  an  immense 
and  most  promising  field  for  scientific  management. 

As  a  first  step  we  should  seek  and  establish  a  true  and  sane 
definition  of  property.  For  thus  only  can  the  property  of  the 
capitalist  and  of  the  laborer  be  secure  and  a  proper  economic 
incentive  (and  that  means  a  chance  for  industrial  peace)  be 
maintained.  This  I  believe  is  no  insoluble  task  even  if  it  is 
largely  abandoned  for  the  consideration  of  far  less  important 
matters.  In  the  political  field,  scientific  management  would  set 
in  motion  the  old  ideas  expressed  in  the  Bills  of  Rights  of  the 
early  state  constitutions.  These  were  particularly  well  stated 
a  century  and  a  third  ago  in  the  Massachusetts  Bill  of  Rights ; 
well  stated,  but  for  reasons  then  unavoidable,  imperfectly  set 
in  motion. 

This  subject  I  venture  to  bring  before  the  society  at  this 
time  because  here  is  a  body  of  men  whose  instincts  and  habits 
8 


110          EFFICIENCY   IN    ENGINEERING   INSTRUCTION. 

are  fundamental  and  constructive — who  will  quickly  see,  if 
they  do  not  already  see,  that,  important  as  scientific  manage- 
ment of  the  production  of  wealth  certainly  is,  a  scientific 
management  of  the  distribution  of  wealth  and  the  main- 
tenance or  establishment,  if  necessary,  of  peace,  contentment 
and  order  in  society  is  even  more  important,  and  that  it  is 
both  their  right  and  duty  as  citizens  to  do  their  full  share  in 
this  work,  and  perhaps  to  take  the  lead. 

I  think  that  engineers,  if  no  one  else,  will  dare  believe  that 
the  distribution  of  wealth  in  society  can  be  made  as  automatic, 
smooth-working,  and  satisfactory  as  the  circulation  of  blood  in 
a  healthy  animal ;  that  they  will  realize  that  such  results  can 
come  only  from  proper  guidance  of  natural  forces,  and  not 
from  arbitrary  and  shallow  legislative  interference  with  such 
forces.  I  certainly  believe  that  we  have  only  to  get  in  line 
with  the  fundamental  laws  of  economics  and  human  nature, 
and  let  them,  like  gravity  taking  water  down  hill,  do  the  work. 
And  we  need  not  feel  concerned  if  the  school  of  thought  which 
got  humanity  into  its  present  and  century-old  fix,  denies  the 
existence  of  such  laws  or  the  possibility  of  getting  into 
harmony  with  them. 

The  work  of  the  next  few  decades  is  a  new  work,  a  work  for 
applied-science  men  and  others  who  can  comprehend  that 
there  can  be  no  social  or  industrial  peace  so  long  as  human 
traditions,  conventions  and  laws  are  kept  flying  in  the  face  of 
the  fundamental  laws  of  the  nature  of  men  and  things.  Noth- 
ing is  so  much  needed  by  engineers  and  applied-science  men  as 
a  realization  of  this  point  of  view.  It  opens  to  them  a  vastly 
broadened  prospect  of  service  as  citizens  and,  in  common  with 
all  other  useful  workers,  greatly  heightened  satisfactions  of 
the  durable  sort,  to  use  President  Eliot's  admirable  phrase. 
Hence  nothing  can  contribute  so  much  to  the  efficiency  of 
engineering  instruction  in  the  biggest  and  broadest  sense,  as  to 
make  clear  to  the  young  engineer-citizens  that  their  training 
in  careful  and  responsible  construction  can  apply,  and  ought 
to  be  made  to  apply,  to  the  whole  range  of  civic  and  industrial 
problems;  and  that  they  need  feel  neither  surprised  nor  dis- 


LEWIS  J.  JOHNSON.  Ill 

turbed  if  popularly  accepted  "  experts, "  apologists  for  exist- 
ing evils,  oppose  their  conclusions.  George  Stephenson  had  to 
struggle  hard  in  the  face  of  the  " experts"  to  get  recognition 
for  his  "travelling  engine,'*  and  the  responsibilities  and  op- 
portunities of  the  civic  engineer  of  to-day  are  perhaps  greater 
than  those  which  confronted  the  mechanical  engineer,  George 
Stephenson. 


ABSENCES    FROM    CLASSES    ONE    MEASURE 
OF   INEFFICIENCY. 

BY    F.    P.    McKIBBEN, 
Professor  of  Civil  Engineering,  Lehigh  University. 

To  persons  in  charge  of  schools  or  colleges  a  study  of 
student  absences  from  classes  is  of  great  value,  because  the 
absences  are  to  a  certain  extent  a  measure  of  the  efficiency  of 
the  system.  If  the  system  is  working  well  there  are  few 
absences  from  classes.  If  it  is  jogging  along  with  friction 
and  kept  going  only  by  the  continuous  effort  on  the  part  of 
those  in  control,  the  number  of  absences  will  be  large.  Viewed 
from  this  standpoint,  therefore,  efficiency  can  be  said  to  vary 
inversely  as  the  number  of  absences.  In  analyzing  the 
problem  of  absences  at  any  institution  one  should  first  make 
a  systematic  study  of  the  underlying  causes.  Such  an  in- 
vestigation will  show  that  students  absent  themselves  from 
classes  because  of  the  following  reasons:  Poor  teaching;  lack 
of  interest  on  the  teacher's  part;  uninteresting  subject  matter; 
sickness,  either  of  the  student  or  of  his  friends  or  relatives; 
conflicts  between  recitations  because  exercises  in  two  different 
subjects  occur  at  the  same  hour;  other  legitimate  matters 
which  take  students  away  from  their  work ;  idleness ;  laziness ; 
dissipation;  and  youthful  neglect. 

There  are  two  general  ways  of  dealing  with  the  absence  evil. 
In  one,  frequent  written  tests  during  the  term  and  a  final 
examination  constitute  the  basis  for  determining  each 
student's  standing.  In  this  system  no  attention  is  paid  to 
absences  by  the  instructor  except  that  the  student  is  graded 
zero  at  each  written  test  or  examination  from  which  he  absents 
himself.  Clearly,  the  effectiveness  of  this  method  is  dependent 
upon  excellence  of  instruction  and  upon  keeping  the  students 
ignorant  as  to  when  written  tests  are  to  be  given.  This  is  a 
good  system,  because  few  students  will  be  absent  if  they  realize 

112 


F.   P.   MCKIBBEN. 


113 


that  a  written  test  may  be  given  at  any  exercise  and  that  an 
absence  from  such  a  test  is  of  very  decided  value  in  determin- 
ing their  academic  status.  The  other  system,  which  is  in 
vogue  at  some  schools,  is  that  in  which  each  student  is  graded 


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114 


ABSENCES    A    MEASUKE    OF    INEFFICIENCY. 


frequently  during  the  term  upon  daily  recitations  and  upon 
written  tests  regarding  which  he  has  been  previously  informed 
as  to  their  time  of  occurrence.  In  this  system  a  number  of 
absences  is  fixed  for  each  subject,  constituting  a  maximum 
limit  beyond  which  the  student  must  not  go  in  absenting  him- 
self from  class  without  suffering  the  penalty  imposed  for 
exceeding  the  limit.  The  penalty  usually  consists  in  exclusion 
from  the  final  examination  in  the  subject  in  which  the  absence 


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SchoolVfears 

Tbfa/  Ho.  Obsences  from  all  Causes 
Civil  Engineering  Dept,  Lehigh  University. 

limit  has  been  exceeded  and  the  limit  bears  a  certain  relation 
to  the  number  of  exercises  per  week  in  the  subject.  For 
example,  if  there  are  three  recitations  per  week  in  a  subject 
the  exclusion  limit  might  be  fixed  at  six,  which  is  double  the 
number  of  exercises  per  week.  This  ratio  is  too  high;  four 
would  be  a  better  absence  limit  in  such  a  case.  The  very 
existence  of  an  absence  limit  makes  some  students  feel  that 
they  are  allowed  to  take  these  absences,  even  though  their 


F.   P.   MCKIBBEN.  115 

grades  for  exercises  from  which  they  are  absent  be  zero,  hence, 
this  system  is  conducive  to  absences  on  the  part  of  a  few 
students  if  for  no  other  reason  than  the  inherent  disposition  in 
man  to  take  all  that  is  coming  to  him.  Some  students  do  not 
realize  that  the  absence  limits  set  are  to  meet  unforeseen  and 
unavoidable  contingencies.  It  is  unfortunate  that  the  great 
number  of  worthy  and  careful  students  should  be  subjected  to 
strict  rules  simply  because  there  are  a  few  irresponsible  mem- 
bers in  their  ranks. 

Believing  as  I  do  that  absences  are  conducive  to  the  forma- 
tion of  bad  habits,  which  take  time  after  graduation  to  over- 
come, and  that  an  employer  notices  in  many  ways  the  effect 
of  "dilly-dally"  habits  formed  in  college,  I  have  tried  to 
reduce  their  number  in  exercises  taught  in  the  civil  engineer- 
ing department  at  Lehigh  University.  That  the  effort  has 
been  successful  is  shown  by  the  accompanying  diagram  and 
table,  wherein  it  appears  that  in  the  six  years  beginning  with 
the  college  year  1906-1907  the  total  number  of  absences  in  the 
department  has  been  reduced  from  4,217  in  that  year  to  1,564 
in  the  year  1911-1912.  During  this  same  period  the  per- 
centage of  absences  has  fallen  from  a  maximum  of  7.9  in  the 
second  term  of  1906-1907  to  a  minimum  of  2.4  for  the  first 
term  of  1910-1911.  The  percentage  of  absences  in  any  term 
is  obtained  by  dividing  the  actual  number  of  absences  in  all 
subjects  by  the  product  of  the  number  of  students  and  the 
number  of  exercises,  and  multiplying  the  quotient  by  100.  In 
the  accompanying  table  every  absence  from  exercises  in  the 
civil  engineering  department  is  included,  whether  occasioned 
by  sickness,  neglect,  athletics,  conflicts  between  two  different 
subjects  occurring  at  the  same  time ;  in  fact,  from  every  cause 
whatsoever. 

This  reduction  has  been  accomplished  by  showing  the  stu- 
dents that  it  is  for  their  good  that  they  be  present,  by  publish- 
ing the  figures  to  show  that  an  evil  existed,  by  trying  to  make 
the  exercises  so  interesting  and  important  that  students  wished 
to  attend,  by  unceasing  watchfulness  over  and  persuasion 
with  those  who  showed  carelessness,  and  finally  where  all 


116 


ABSENCES   A   MEASURE   OF   INEFFICIENCY. 


EXCLUSION.    ABSENCE  LIMITS  FOR  SUBJECTS   TAUGHT  BY  CIVIL  ENGI- 
NEERING DEPARTMENT,  LEHIGH  UNIVERSITY,  1911-1912. 


Subject. 

Class. 

Number  of 
Exercises  per 
Week. 

Exclusion 
Limits. 

^  Bridge  design    

Senior 

6 

7 

Sanitary  engineering     .       .. 

Senior 

4 

6 

Senior 

3 

5 

E.  M.  graphic  statics  

Senior 

2 

3 

Strength  of  materials    

Junior 

4 

6 

a 

Testing  laboratory  

Junior 

1 

0 

s 

E.  E.  construction  

Junior 

2 

3 

H  ' 

Junior 

2 

3 

to 

C  E  graphic  statics 

Junior 

2 

3 

£ 

M.  E.  graphic  statics  

Junior 

2 

3 

Elem.  niech.  of  materials  
C   E  construction         

Sophomore 
Soph  omore 

1 
2 

2 
3 

Stereotomy             .     

Sophomore 

3 

5 

'  Mechanical  drawing  

Freshman 

2 

3 

Subject. 

Class. 

Number  of 
Exercises  per 
Week. 

Exclusion 
Limits. 

Bridges  

Senior 

4 

c; 

Cement  and  concrete  

Senior 

3 

4 

Steel  buildings  

Senioi 

2 

Q 

a 

E.  E.  construction  

Junior 

2 

Q 

Hydraulics  

Junior 

3 

4 

^  ' 

Bridges  

Junior 

3 

4 

p 

Railroad  surveying  

Junior 

4 

5 

Hydraulic  laboratory  

Junior 

1 

o 

02 

C.  E.  construction  

Sophomore 

2 

3 

Land  surveying. 

Sophomore 

4 

Descriptive  geometry  

Freshman 

3 

5 

other  means  failed  by  enforcing  strictly  the  rule  regarding 
exclusion  from  final  examination  where  the  absence  limit  had 
been  exceeded.  This  exclusion  meant  that  the  student  under 
discipline  was  compelled  to  repeat  the  subject  in  class.  A 
very  forceful  argument  that  sets  the  students  to  thinking 
about  this  matter  is  that  pertaining  to  the  financial  aspect  of 
the  question.  Let  it  be  supposed  that  a  student  has  18  class 
exercises  each  week  for  30  weeks  or  540  exercises  during  his 
college  year  and  that  the  total  cost  of  his  year's  stay  at 
college  is  $810.00.  If  he  is  absent  once  he  has  wasted  $1.50. 
assuming  that  each  exercise  is  of  the  same  importance;  10 


F.   P.   MCKIBBEN.  117 

absences  means  the  loss  equivalent  to  $15.00.  Of  course,  the 
reasoning  here  is  far  from  logical,  because  a  boy  will  not  lose 
the  entire  lesson  by  being  absent  from  the  recitation  if  he 
has  devoted  some  thought  to  the  lesson  at  home,  but  there  is 
just  enough  basis  for  the  argument  to  make  some  students 
understand  the  point  involved  and  to  make  them  improve  their 
attendance. 


THE  PROBLEM  OF  EFFICIENCY  IN  TEACHING.* 

BY  W.  A.  HILLEBRAND, 
Professor  of  Electrical  Engineering,  Oregon  Agricultural  College. 

President  Jordan,  of  Stanford  University,  tells  the  story 
of  a  prominent  entomologist  who  began  his  study  of  organic 
science  under  Professor  Agassiz.  The  young  man  was  at 
first  given  a  fish  to  study  with  the  brief  instruction  to  find 
out  by  observation  all  that  he  could  about  it.  After  some 
twenty  minutes  or  half  an  hour  he  reported  to  his  instructor, 
only  to  be  told  to  go  back  and  look  some  more.  His  real 
observation  began  when  he  picked  up  a  pencil  and  commenced 
to  draw,  but  after  noting  with  painstaking  effort  apparently 
all  that  the  exterior  of  the  specimen  could  reveal,  he  was 
informed  that  he  had  overlooked  the  most  significant  fact  of 
all.  For  two  days  he  pondered  over  the  enigma  until  it  oc- 
curred to  him  in  a  dream,  that  the  fish  is  symmetrical.  In 
his  stubborn  insistence  that  the  student  work  out  his  own 
salvation,  backed  doubtless  by  a  personal  magnetism  that 
spurred  him  to  the  effort,  lay  the  genius  of  Agassiz  as  a 
teacher  and  in  that  same  spirit  lies  the  essence  of  good  teach- 
ing today  and  for  all  time. 

Most  people  acquire  knowledge  of  a  new  subject  slowly  and 
with  difficulty  and  what  a  student  does  acquire  he  must  win 
for  himself,  as  a  rule  laboriously.  How  true  this  is  will  be 
vouched  for  by  any  teacher  who  holds  himself  responsible 
for  seeing  that  his  students  absorb  the  information  which 
he  strives  to  impart. 

In  a  recent  article  Professor  Paine,  of  the  University  of 
Illinois,  describing  the  work  in  that  institution,  cites  the  daily 

*  This  paper  was  first  presented,  by  request,  at  the  December  meeting  of 
the  Portland  section  A.  I.  E.  E.,  and  subsequently  printed  in  abstract  in 
the  Journal  of  Electricity,  Power  and  Gas. 

118 


W.  A.   HILLEBRAND.  119 

problem  as  an  essential  feature,  whereby,  to  use  his  own 
words,  * '  The  student  finds  out  for  himself, ' '  a  laborious  proc- 
ess but,  where  effectiveness  is  the  goal,  the  only  one  which 
the  author  believes  practicable. 

In  my  own  classes  I  have  for  five  years  given  the  following 
problem : 

"An  arc  light  which  behaves  as  a  dead  resistance  consumes 
seventy  volts  at  the  arc  with  a  current  of  six  amperes :  Find 
the  reactance  in  ohms  of  a  choke  coil  to  be  placed  in  series  in 
order  that  the  arc  may  operate  properly  from  a  one  hundred 
ten  volt  circuit."  Each  year  regularly  fourteen  out  of  fif- 
teen men  will  add  algebraically  the  reactance  and  resistance 
volts,  although  for  a  week  or  ten  days  they  have  been  success- 
fully solving  problems  with  complicated  series  and  multiple 
groupings  of  resistance,  capacity  and  inductance.  A  similar 
experience  would  await  when,  later  in  the  semester  in  the 
study  of  transmission  lines,  the  reactance  and  resistance  drop 
would  again  be  added  algebraically.  All  of  these  problems 
had  to  be  corrected  and  returned  by  the  student  and  much 
time  could  have  been  saved  to  all  concerned  by  a  word  from 
the  instructor. 

When  this  fact  concerning  the  difficulty  with  which  knowl- 
edge is  acquired  is  once  accepted,  it  becomes  the  fundamental, 
underlying  principle  of  any  educational  institution  that 
adopts  it  and  largely  determines  some  of  its  most  important 
pedagogic  questions  such  as  the  attitude  of  the  student  to- 
ward his  work,  of  the  teacher  toward  the  student,  and  the 
provision  of  adequate  funds  that  the  work  of  instruction 
may  be  prosecuted  in  accordance  with  the  accepted  ideal. 
It  will  be  an  important  factor  in  deciding  how  a  given  subject 
shall  be  presented  by  the  teacher,  that  is,  whether  the  best 
results  are  to  be  obtained  by  lectures,  recitations  from  a  text 
book,  a  course  of  problems,  laboratory  experiments,  or  through 
a  combination  of  these  methods.  The  questions  concerning 
the  number  of  students  in  a  given  course  who  can  be  effect- 
ively taught  in  a  single  section,  of  the  number  of  sections 
that,  with  justice  to  all,  particularly  the  instructor,  one 


120  PROBLEM    OF    EFFICIENCY   IN    TEACHING. 

man  can  handle,  and  also  questions  as  to  whether  the  faculty 
of  any  department  is  undermanned  and  of  whether  funds  of 
the  institution  shall  be  devoted  to  extending  the  work  to 
new  departments  or  strengthening  those  already  in  existence, 
are  problems  which  may  be  solved  intelligently  only  through 
the  application  of  our  guiding  principle. 

In  considering  the  question  of  the  efficiency  of  technical 
instruction,  on  which  alone  the  author  claims  to  speak  with 
any  authority,  two  important  facts  must  be  borne  in  mind: 
First,  that  in  most  of  the  colleges  in  America  which  offer 
technical  courses,  instruction  in  a  large  number  of  quite 
unrelated  branches  is  also  given;  and  secondly,  that  every 
college  is  in  honor  bound  to  its  students  whom  it  ostensibly 
prepares  for  life,  to  offer  in  every  department  of  its  curricu- 
lum a  minimum  number  of  courses  which  the  nature  of  each 
subject  and  the  precedent  set  by  other  schools  of  similar  grade 
have  declared  standard.  For  instance,  in  electrical  engineer- 
ing there  must  be  offered  in  the  junior  year  an  introductory 
course  of  lectures  or  recitations  with  correlated  laboratory  in- 
struction in  dynamo  electric  machinery,  followed  the  next 
year  by  similar  but  more  advanced  courses  and  one  course  in 
the  elements  of  engineering  practice  as  applied  to  enterprises 
which  utilize  the  electric  current.  More  can  be  and  generally 
is  offered  but  this  is  the  irreducible  minimum  which  the 
institution  obligates  itself  to  undertake  as  soon  as  it  adver- 
tises a  department  of  electrical  engineering. 

Like  its  near  relation,  the  business  corporation,  nearly 
every  educational  institution  has  but  limited  funds  with  which 
to  carry  out  the  plan  definitely  outlined  in  its  founding 
grant  or  by  the  policy  of  its  governing  board.  It  inevitably 
follows,  that  if  an  aggressive  and  capable  departmental  head 
in  Greek,  botany,  or  mathematics  is  unduly  favored  with 
appropriations  to  expand  the  work  which  he  so  successfully 
directs,  every  other  department  of  the  university  or  college 
must  suffer  in  proportion  as  its  own  income  is  thereby  depleted. 

Upon  every  department  head  or  faculty  therefore,  devolves 
the  responsibility  of  analyzing  their  particular  situation,  of 


W.  A.   HILLEBRAND.  121 

deciding  upon  the  minimum  equipment  and  personnel  neces- 
sary to  adequately  serve  the  students  as  local  conditions  de- 
mand, and  to  insist  that  the  necessary  appropriation  be 
granted.  To  prove  one's  case  is  often  by  no  means  easy, 
especially  in  view  of  the  fact  that  other  departments  doing 
a  somewhat  similar  work  may  be  handling  relatively  much 
larger  numbers.  Accordingly,  during  the  fall  of  1910,  the 
author  made  an  effort  to  determine  the  amount  of  time  actu- 
ally taken  by  the  courses  he  was  conducting,  with  the  idea 
of  determining  the  number  of  courses  and  students  which 
one  instructor  under  similar  conditions  and  with  like  ideals, 
can  handle. 

For  an  entire  semester,  or  nearly  four  months  he  kept  a 
detailed  record  of  the  disposition  of  his  time,  itemized  under 
headings  which  endeavored  to  account  for  every  period  of  the 
working  day,  down  to  as  brief  an  interval  as  five  minutes. 
Upon  a  sheet  of  paper  on  his  desk  was  recorded  the  time  of 
every  interruption  of  routine  work  or  of  every  change  from 
one  form  of  activity  to  another.  When  away  from  the  desk 
similar  record  was  kept  in  a  memorandum  book. 

Time  was  charged  against  the  following,  and  averaged,  in 
some  cases,  for  a  week  of  five  days,  although  the  record  com- 
prised the  entire  seven,  but  as  class  instruction  covers  only 
five  days  it  is.  assumed  that  work  for  the  university  was  per- 
formed in  that  time,  in  order  to  give  a  standard  day. 

Hours  per  Week.  Hours  per  Day. 

1.  Preparation  for  class 5 :45  1 :09 

2.  Class-room  instruction   5 :45  1 : 09 

3.  Correcting  reports  and  papers 17:35  3:31 

4.  Interviews    9 :20  1 :52 

5.  Miscellaneous  .  .11:55  2:23 


Total 50:20  10:04 

It  was  not  until  after  my  record  had  been  completed,  that, 
in  reading  Bulletin  Number  Five  of  the  Carnegie  Foundation, 
I  discovered  that  Mr.  Cooke  had  obtained  similar  information, 
with  a  doubtless  similar  purpose,  from  the  physics  teachers 
at  the  eight  institutions  which  he  visited. 


122  PKOBLEM    OF   EFFICIENCY  IN   TEACHING. 

This  shows  a  heavier  schedule  than  was  actually  carried, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  preparation  and  correction  of  reports 
were  carried  on  over  Saturday  and  Sunday,  but  is  fair  if  it  is 
understood  that  the  last  two  days  are  left  absolutely  free. 

During  the  five  days  of  instruction  an  uninterrupted 
period  of  not  more  than  two  hours  could  be  counted  upon. 

About  three  quarters  of  an  hour  a  day  were  occupied  in 
conferences  with  other  members  of  the  same  or  allied  depart- 
ments, which,  although  conditions  were  exceptional,  was  alto- 
gether too  much.  The  author  was  a  prime  offender. 

The  amount  of  time,  over  an  hour  a  day,  devoted  to  student 
interviews  and  the  number  thereof,  which  would  run  as  high 
as  eight  or  ten  in  a  single  day,  seems  unavoidable  when  the 
nature  of  the  course  is  considered.  The  students  had  two 
laboratory  periods  a  week  with  an  inflexible  ten-day  limit  for 
reports,  in  which  were  to  be  answered  numerous  questions 
concerning  apparatus  handled  in  the  laboratory  experiments. 
In  view  of  this  fact  and  of  the  exigencies  of  schedule  it  seemed 
impracticable  and  unfair  to  keep  office  hours  at  which  time 
only  consultations  might  be  held.  This  meant  a  reduction 
in  efficiency  on  the  part  of  the  instructor,  frat  it  was  con- 
sidered essential  to  the  best  interests  of  the  student. 

As  it  stands,  the  schedule  is  too  heavy  because  time  should 
be  allowed  him  for  study  and  investigation  outside  of  that 
which  he  may  feel  inclined  to  take  from  his  family  and  social 
duties.  This  is  necessitated  by  the  demands  made  upon  the 
engineering  teacher  by  his  college,  which  requires  that  he 
keep  up  to  date,  by  the  profession  which  looks  to  him  as  an 
authority  on  the  theoretical  side  which  the  man  in  practice 
often  lacks  the  time  to  study,  and  by  his  students  who  come 
to  him  with  questions  on  a  wide  range  of  topics.  In  my 
opinion,  six  hours  a  day  is  as  much  as  any  man  in  the  teaching 
profession  should  be  required  to  devote  to  work  of  instruction 
either  by  way  of  actual  teaching,  conference,  or  preparation. 

The  courses  conducted  by  the  author,  either  solely  or  in 
conjunction  with  others,  were  as  follows : 

1.  A  course  of  lectures  to  freshmen  requiring  two  hours  a 


W.  A.   HILLEBBAND.  123 

month  and  a  total  of  thirty  hours  for  the  semester  in  con- 
ferences. 

2.  A  recitation  course  to  fifteen  seniors  of  three  periods 
a  week  on  alternating  current  machinery.     There  were  as- 
signed five  problems  and  six  examinations,  making  a  total 
of  165  papers  whose  correction  required  an  average  of  four- 
teen minutes  each.     Each  problem  submitted  had  to  be  re- 
turned by  the  student,  if  incorrect,  until  marked  satisfactory. 

3.  Laboratory  course  to  the  same  fifteen  seniors,  in  which 
twenty  experiments,  each  requiring  a  report,  were  assigned. 
My  share  was  the  reading  of  these  reports,  which  were  first 
handed  in  preliminary  to  the  experiment  and  then  after  per- 
formance,  resubmitted  until  accepted.     Three  hundred  re- 
ports averaged  forty-one  minutes  each — total  time. 

4.  Course  of  lectures  to  twenty  juniors,  one  period  a  week. 
Nine  reports  required,  one  hundred  eighty  total,  averaging 
eight  minutes  each. 

A  few  words  as  to  the  conduct  of  these  courses  are  now  in 
order.  Numbers  three  and  four  constituted  the  burden  of  the 
work.  They  were  closely  correlated,  laboratory  instruction 
in  a  given  subject  preceding  the  class  room  study  thereof  by 
one  or  two  weeks,  it  being  our  belief,  supported  by  experience, 
that  although  it  increased  the  difficulty  in  preparing  for  and 
running  an  experiment,  such  difficulty  was  more  than  com- 
pensated by  the  advantage  to  the  student  in  having  had  some 
physical  contact  and  experience  with  a  machine  before  at- 
tempting to  master  the  theory. 

An  idea  of  the  effort  that  was  made  to  force  the  student 
to  do  as  much  as  possible  of  the  work  himself  and  develop  his 
power  to  observe  and  reason,  is  given  by  the  following  inci- 
dent. One  of  the  boys  stepped  into  my  office  for  information 
which  could  have  been  briefly  and  directly  given  but  instead, 
eighteen  minutes  were  consumed  in  an  effort  to  make  him  solve 
the  difficulty  for  himself.  All  work  submitted  by  the  student 
was  rigorously  scrutinized  throughout  and  no  observed  error 
in  spelling  or  grammar  was  allowed  to  pass  uncorrected,  but 
the  opportunity  which  such  a  series  of  reports  offer  as  studies 


124  PEOBLEM   OF   EFFICIENCY   IN   TEACHING. 

in  composition  was  not  taken  advantage  of  for  lack  of  time. 

An  attempt  will  now  be  made  to  determine  the  amount  of 
work  of  the  sort  previously  outlined  which  one  man  can 
effectively  handle,  it  being  assumed  that  similar  ideals  and 
methods  will  be  adhered  to,  and  that  six  hours  shall  consti- 
tute a  day's  work. 

Then,  one  instructor  can  read  the  reports  on  seven  experi- 
ments performed  per  day  in  the  senior  laboratory,  provided 
he  does  nothing  more.  The  extra  hour  is  allowed  for  con- 
ferences. If  he  also  handles  the  section  during  the  three 
hour  laboratory  period,  then  he  can  read  the  reports  of  three 
or  four  men.  If  he  is  in  charge  of  the  laboratory  and  respon- 
sible for  the  coordination  and  development  of  its  facilities, 
the  burden  of  report  reading  should  be  largely  taken  off  his 
shoulders,  entirely  so  if  he  conducts  any  other  courses  be- 
sides this  one.  In  a  progressive  institution,  whether  it  be 
rapidly  growing  or  not,  the  work  of  coordination  and  develop- 
ment will  easily  take  from  one  quarter  to  one  third  of  a  man's 
time,  even  if  he  has  a  mechanical  assistant  to  attend  to  that 
end. 

In  the  class  room  study  of  machinery  performance,  a  class 
of  thirty  juniors  or  seniors  should  be  split  into  two  sections, 
for  the  weight  of  authority  agrees  that  for  most  instructional 
work  of  any  kind,  wherein  the  work  is  of  a  nature  that  requires 
personal  supervision,  the  limit  of  efficiency  is  passed  when 
the  number  of  students  in  a  section  is  more  than  twenty-five. 
Two  such  sections,  meeting  three  times  a  week,  can  be  handled 
profitably  by  one  man  whose  time  will  be  completely  appro- 
priated in  preparation,  recitation  and  correction  of  papers  if 
daily  problems  are  assigned  which  must  be  successively  re- 
turned by  the  student  until  correct.  His  time  will  be  con- 
sumed as  follows,  for  the  week: 

Preparation   3  hours. 

Class    6  hours. 

Correction  of  papers,  3  X  30  X  i   22£  hours. 

or  the  total  of  28%  hours  out  of  a  maximum  thirty  allowable. 


W.  A.   HILLEBKAND.  125 

Since  ample  time  is  to  be  allowed  the  instructor  in  which 
properly  to  do  his  work,  equal  justice  must  be  granted  the 
student,  which  means  few  credits,  preferably  not  over  fifteen 
or  sixteen  in  the  junior  and  senior  years,  and,  in  the  case  of 
men  who  will  take  proper  advantage  of  their  opportunity, 
often  a  less  number  is  profitable  in  promoting  more  intensive 
study  and  effort. 

If,  in  such  a  course,  the  assignment  of  one  or  more  prob- 
lems every  day  is  deemed  neither  necessary  nor  desirable, 
then  more  time  for  other  work  is  left  both  student  and 
instructor. 

Assuming  three  men  to  handle  the  above  group  of  seniors, 
in  a  laboratory  course  wherein  each  student  spends  three 
hours  a  week,  and  one  recitation  course  of  two  sections,  meet- 
ing three  times  a  week,  which  would  be  a  light  schedule  for 
so  many  instructors,  it  is  seen  that  in  a  year  of  thirty-two 
weeks,  five  thousand,  seven  hundred  sixty  (5,760)  student 
hours  of  instruction  will  have  been  offered,  or  nineteen  hun- 
dred twenty  (1,920)  per  man.  By  a  student  hour  is  meant 
one  hour  nominally  spent  by  a  student  with  his  instructor. 

In  the  courses  given  by  the  department  of  electrical  engi- 
neering at  the  Oregon  Agricultural  College  there  will  prob- 
ably be  offered  this  year,  seven  thousand,  three  hundred 
(7,300)  student  hours  of  instruction,  or  with  a  faculty  of 
two  and  two  thirds  men,  for  two  instructors  are  shared  by 
this  and  the  department  of  physics,  twenty-seven  hundred 
forty  (2,740)  student  hours  per  man.  The  imaginary  schedule 
is  admittedly  light,  which  places  our  Oregon  institution  almost 
in  the  same  class,  as  regards  opportunity. 

Since  the  question  of  efficiency  in  teaching  is  inseparably 
bound  up  with  that  of  finance  which  provides  the  necessary 
funds,  it  should  be  of  interest  to  ascertain,  if  only  in  an  indi- 
vidual case,  what  the  cost  of  instruction  may  be  or  actually  is. 

The  courses  offered  by  our  department  this  year  are  as 
follows : 
9 


126  PROBLEM    OF   EFFICIENCY   IN    TEACHING. 

Junior  laboratory  course   2  semesters,  2  credits  each. 

Junior  recitation  course  2  semesters,  3  credits  each. 

Senior  laboratory  course    2  semesters,  2  credits  each. 

Senior  recitation  course   2  semesters,  3  credits  each. 

Senior  design  course  2  semesters,  2  credits  each. 

Senior  thesis  course 1  semester,  2  credits. 

In  the  junior  class  there  are  eighteen  men  and  in  the  senior 
class  eleven  with  a  total  of  7,300  student  hours  and  413  credit 
hours,  which  totals  can  not  be  deduced  alone  from  the  above 
table. 

The  cost  of  instruction  is  subdivided  as  follows: 

Teaching  salaries,  labor  and  supplies  used  solely  by  the  depart- 
ment in  connection  with  the  above  enumerated  courses  ....  $4,325.00 

College  administration  and  maintenance,  electrical  department 

share  899.00 

Fixed  charges,  interest  and  depreciation  1,360.00 

Total $6,584.00 

Administration  and  maintenance  cover  the  expenses  of  the 
executive,  registrar  and  business  offices,  publications  and  care 
of  grounds  apportioned  in  the  proportion  of  the  number  of 
students  taking  work  in  our  department  to  the  total  regis- 
tration. A  better  division  would  perhaps  be  founded  on  the 
proportion  of  student  hours  instruction  to  the  total  for  the 
college,  but  these  figures  are  not  available.  This  item  of  ex- 
pense also  covers  janitorial  service  and  heating,  apportioned 
in  the  ratio  of  floor  space  occupied  by  our  department  to  the 
total  floor  space,  estimated,  of  the  college. 

Fixed  charges  include  interest  at  four  per  cent.  This 
figure  is  the  one  used  by  Mr.  Cooke  in  his  report  to  the  Car- 
negie Foundation.  It  seems  legitimate  to  charge  interest 
because  the  college  plant  was  provided  by  the  taxpayers  of 
the  state  with  funds  which  might  otherwise  be  productive. 

Depreciation  is  figured  at  the  following  rates:  buildings, 
2  per  cent.;  electrical  equipment,  5  per  cent.;  power  plant, 
5  per  cent. ;  wire  plant,  property  of  college,  8  per  cent. ;  heat- 
ing plant,  4  per  cent. ;  printing  office  equipment,  5  per  cent. 


W.  A.   HILLEBBAND.  127 

(a)  Students  enrolled  in  electrical  courses  30 

(6)  Total  enrollment  of  full  course  students 1,066 

Eatio,  afb  =  .0283,  or  2.83  per  cent. 

Sq.  Ft 

(c)  Floor  space  occupied  by  department  4,135 

(d)  Floor  space,  class  rooms,  laboratories  and  offices  in  Mechan- 

ical Hall,  home  of  electrical  engineering  department  . .     17,230 
Ratio,  c/d  =  .25,  or  25  per  cent. 

(e)  Floor  space  for  entire  college  (estimated)   353,000 

Eatio,  c/<?  =  .012,  or  1.2  per  cent. 

Fixed  charges  were  computed  and  apportioned  to  the  de- 
partment as  follows: 

Mechanical  Hall,  $30,000  X  (.02  plus  .04)  X  .25 $450.00 

Departmental  equipment  $8,500  X  (.04  plus  .05)    756.00 

Campus  lands,  $15,000  X  .04  X  .0283    17.00 

Power  plant,  $19,000  X  (.04  plus  .05)  X  .0283 48.00 

Wire  plant,  $5,000  X  (.04  plus  .08)  X  .0283 17.00 

Heating  plant,  $34,000  X  (.04  plus  .04)  X  .012    32.00 

Printing  plant,  $5,500  X  (.04  plus  .05)  X  .0283    14.00 

Administration  offices,  $5.500  X  (.02  plus  .04)  X  .0283   17.00 

$1,360.00 

Although  the  estimated  value  of  land  on  the  campus  is 
about  $200,000.00  only  the  approximate  purchase  value  was 
used  in  computing  cost. 

Per  Cent. 

Eatio  salaries,  etc.,  to  total  cost 65.5 

Eatio  administration  and  maintenance  to  total  cost 13.6 

Eatio  fixed  charges  to  total  cost  20.9 

Cost  per  student  hour,  $6,584.00  -f-  7,300  equals  $.90. 

Cost  per  student  credit,  $6,584.00 -f- 413  equals  $15.95. 

For  every  registered  hour  a  student  spends  with  an  in- 
structor in  our  department  it  costs  ninety  cents.  It  is  inter- 
esting to  note  that  this  value  lies  within  the  range  reported 
by  Mr.  Cooke  as  the  cost  per  student  hour  in  physics  at  eight 
prominent  Eastern  and  Middle  Western  colleges  and  uni- 
versities. His  costs  average  $.87. 


128  PROBLEM    OF   EFFICIENCY   IN   TEACHING. 

Assuming  that  the  salary  roll  should  vary  about  as  the 
number  of  students,  the  cost  of  instruction  may  be  repre- 
sented by  the  following  formula,  where  x  equals  the  number 
of  credit  hours  in  courses  offered  by  the  department: 

Annual  cost  =  $2,259.00 +  10.50z. 

10.50  covers  salaries,  etc.,  per  credit  hour  in  1911-12.  The 
amount  which  annually  must  be  provided  to  run  the  depart- 
ment is  given  by  the  formula 

899  +  10.50z  +  y, 

where  y  is  the  annual  equipment  appropriation,  which  may 
vary  from  nothing  to  whatever  the  authorities  feel  can  be 
afforded. 

Doubtless  the  most  perplexing  question  confronting  every 
college  president  concerns  the  distribution  of  the  annual  ap- 
propriation. The  author  believes  that  a  careful  analysis  of 
costs  would  be  of  material  assistance  in  answering  this  ques- 
tion, and  that,  in  general,  a  low  cost  per  student  hour  will  be 
a  sign  of  inefficiency. 

In  striving  for  efficiency  in  teaching  as  in  any  other  en- 
deavor, we  believe  it  necessary  to  possess  a  clear  realization 
of  the  end  sought,  of  the  method  which  shall  be  followed  and 
of  the  equipment  and  personnel  required.  Some  conception 
of  the  necessary  expense  is  also  considered  desirable. 


THE  ADMINISTRATION   OF   COLLEGE  SHOP 
LABORATORIES. 

BY  W.  F.  M.  GOSS, 
Dean  of  the  College  of  Engineering,  University  of  Illinois. 

The  shop  laboratory  has  for  many  years  constituted  an 
important  factor  in  technical  education.  The  "Worcester 
Polytechnic  Institute,  which  began  its  work  in  November, 
1868,  gave  a  prominent  place  to  such  laboratories.  A  shop 
laboratory  was  organized  at  the  University  of  Illinois  in  1870. 
An  elaborately  equipped  shop  for  the  administration  of  graded 
courses  of  practice,  in  conformity  with  the  so-called  Russian 
system,  was  established  at  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of 
Technology  in  1876,  at  Purdue  University  in  1879,  and  soon 
after  in  various  state  universities  and  in  other  institutions. 

Several  important  results  have  followed  the  establishment 
of  these  shop  laboratories.  Their  work  has  interested  the 
public.  In  the  early  development  of  engineering  courses  in 
the  state  institutions  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  and  the  West, 
it  was  important  that  the  work  undertaken  should  be  readily 
interpreted  by  the  public.  The  forgings,  the  patterns,  the 
castings  and  the  finished  machines  resulting  from  the  work 
of  students  in  the  college  shops  were  accepted  by  the  sup- 
porters of  these  institutions  as  evidence  of  the  practical  char- 
acter of  the  work  done  by  the  college.  Many  institutions 
which  began  with  the  simple  processes  of  the  shop,  have  so 
stimulated  the  confidence  of  their  supporters  that  they  have 
been  able  gradually  to  build  up  courses  of  greater  breadth  and 
value.  It  is  especially  true  of  the  state  universities,  that  the 
shop  laboratories,  with  the  field  instruments  used  in  survey- 
ing, have  served  as  stepping  stones  in  the  upbuilding  of  the 
present-day  broad  and  admirable  courses  of  study  and 
practice. 

Advocates  of  the  movement  have  looked  upon  the  work  of 

129 


130    ADMINISTRATION  OF  COLLEGE  SHOP  LABORATORIES. 

the  shop  laboratories  as  of  the  highest  importance  from  an 
educational  point  of  view.  Such  work  has  trained  students 
to  an  understanding  of  the  nature  of  materials,  and  has 
afforded  them  practice  in  many  of  the  fundamental  processes 
which  underlie  all  construction.  Its  purpose  has  been  not  to 
make  men  skilful  manipulators,  but  to  give  them  an  under- 
standing of  the  principles  governing  manipulation.  Not  only 
have  the  shop  laboratories  accomplished  this  purpose,  but 
they  have  bestowed  upon  students  certain  incidental  advan- 
tages. The  fact  that  a  graduate  in  mechanical  engineering 
has  been  able  to  run  a  lathe  has  often  supplied  a  way  for  his 
admission  to  an  establishment,  in  the  management  of  which 
he  has  later  become  an  influential  factor.  In  the  early  days 
of  the  technical  school,  the  fact  that  the  engineering  graduate 
could  make  tests  and  calculate  the  efficiency  of  a  boiler, 
counted  for  little,  but  the  fact  that  he  could  take  his  place  in 
a  shop  and  do  things  which  the  practical  men  of  the  shop  were 
paid  for  doing,  at  once  gave  him  value  in  the  opinion  of  the 
men  who  were  influential  in  determining  his  future  career. 

Many  changes  have  affected  the  engineering  industries 
since  shop  laboratories  first  made  their  appearance,  and  many 
new  conditions  have  arisen  which  must  be  taken  into  account 
when  one  attempts  to  define  the  present-day  conduct  of  such 
laboratories.  Much  of  the  shop  work  formerly  done  by  the 
college  is  now  being  very  well  done  by  the  secondary  school. 
The  practicing  engineer  and  the  corporation  manager,  who 
employ  the  technical  graduate,  no  longer  require  him  to  be  a 
skilful  manipulator.  The  employer  is  now  willing  to  accept 
at  its  face  value  a  candidate's  ability  to  apply  correct  theory 
in  the  analysis  of  practical  problems,  and  he  does  not  insist 
that  he  shall  be  able  to  compete  with  skilled  workmen  as  a 
workman.  A  demand  has  developed  for  men  possessing  other 
characteristics — the  characteristics  of  the  well-trained  theorist 
and  analyst — for  men  who  understand  the  principles  under- 
lying the  work  of  the  mechanic,  and  who  through  the  applica- 
tion of  these  principles  can  aid  in  a  large  way  in  increasing 
the  efficiency  of  the  establishment  they  serve.  The  people 


W.  F.   M.  GOSS.  131 

contributing  to  the  support  of  the  technical  school  no  longer 
require  the  activities  of  the  shop  laboratory  to  convince  them 
of  the  value  of  the  engineer's  training,  for  they  see  in  the 
work  of  men  who  control  the  engineering  activities  which  are 
going  on  all  about  them,  a  better  and  a  broader  definition  of 
the  true  functions  of  the  engineer. 

From  these  considerations  it  should  be  apparent  that  the 
ideals  which  hitherto  have  stimulated  the  work  of  the  shop 
laboratories  are  sustained  by  arguments  which  are  losing  force 
as  time  proceeds.  So  true  is  this  that  the  question  is  already 
fairly  before  the  technical  school  as  to  whether  the  existing 
shop  courses  which  have  served  so  long  and  so  well  shall  be 
entirely  abandoned.  If  not  abandoned,  they  must  be  placed 
upon  a  new  plane  of  excellence. 

In  the  opinion  of  the  writer,  the  time  has  come  when  the 
shop  laboratory  should  cease  to  be  content  with  a  grade  of 
work  possible  in  a  secondary  school ;  its  work  should  possess  a 
quality  and  character  which  is  only  possible  in  the  environ- 
ment of  the  technical  school.  This  implies  that  the  work  of 
the  shop  laboratories  must  be  interrelated  with  that  of  other 
technical  courses,  that  such  laboratories  must  cease  to  use 
equipment  which  was  purchased  one  or  two  decades  ago,  and 
that  they  must  cease  to  be  satisfied  with  methods  of  adminis- 
tration which,  in  the  actual  shops,  have  already  passed  out 
of  existence.  If  the  shops  are  to  mean  anything  worth  while, 
they  must  not  only  respond  to  the  great  and  significant 
changes  which  have  been  going  on  outside,  but  they  must 
have  their  part  in  leading  such  changes.  Their  work  must 
not  stop  with  a  routine;  it  must  proceed  to  the  development 
of  research  that  new  principles  may  be  established.  This 
means  that  the  administration  of  laboratories  which  are  to 
serve  such  purposes  must  be  in  the  hands  of  broadly  trained 
men  and  that  sufficient  funds  must  be  available  to  permit  their 
operation  on  a  scale  far  beyond  that  which  most  of  our  institu- 
tions have  as  yet  thought  possible ;  it  means  that  such  labora- 
tories will  take  their  place  with  courses  of  instruction  touch- 
ing the  principles  underlying  systems  of  shop  production  just 


132     ADMINISTEATION  OF  COLLEGE  SHOP  LABOEATOEIES. 

as  the  steam-engine  laboratory  has  taken  its  place  in  con- 
nection with  class  room  courses  in  thermodynamics. 

This  conception  makes  the  problem  of  the  modern  shop 
laboratory  one  of  large  proportions,  and  its  solution  presents 
a  field  of  endeavor  which  the  officers  of  technical  schools  will 
find  full  of  promise. 


SETTING  TASKS  FOR  COLLEGE  MEN. 

BY  SANFOKD  E.  THOMPSON, 
Consulting  Engineer,  Newton  Highlands,  Mass. 

In  nearly  all  colleges  there  are  certain  studies  designated 
by  students  as  "snap'*  courses.  Where  the  elective  system  is 
in  full  force,  it  follows  inevitably  that  a  student  can  select 
courses  that  will  permit  him  to  obtain  a  degree  with  a  remark- 
ably small  amount  of  brain  exercise  during  any  one  of  the 
four  years  of  residence. 

At  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  the  institu- 
tion with  which  I  am  most  familiar,  and  I  presume  also  at 
other  technical  universities,  "snap"  courses  are  hard  to  find. 
For  the  attainment  of  a  degree  in  science,  a  student  must 
follow  lines  of  study  which  are  closely  prescribed.  Yet  even 
in  these  schools,  noted  for  their  "grinds,"  there  is  a  marked 
difference  between  the  amount  of  work  required  by  different 
departments  and  by  different  instructors  in  the  same  depart- 
ment. Furthermore,  different  lessons  and  exercises  in  the 
same  course  frequently  vary  to  a  great  extent  in  the  time 
required  for  preparation  or  performance. 

Partly  as  a  result  of  such  variations,  a  common  complaint 
of  employers  of  college  graduates  and  technical  school  gradu- 
ates is  on  the  ground  of  the  inability  of  the  latter  to  attack 
a  job  in  aMbusiness-like  manner  and  complete  it  in  a  reason- 
able time — their  lack  of  "know-how-to-work."  Frequently 
along  with  this  is  the  failure  to  realize  that  a  simple  error  in 
addition  or  subtraction  may  be  even  more  serious  from  a  com- 
mercial or  engineering  standpoint  than  an  error  in  method  of 
computation.  In  filling  positions  in  my  own  organization 
where  the  applicant  is  a  recent  graduate,  my  first  question  is 
with  reference  to  what  practical  work  he  has  done  before  or 
during  his  college  course;  can  he  turn  out  a  piece  of  work 

133 


134        SETTING  TASKS  FOR  COLLEGE  MEN. 

not  only  in  the  proper  way,  but  quickly  and  accurately  ?  We 
frequently  hear  the  statement — true,  however,  only  with  a 
portion  of  the  students — that  a  man  is  not  good  for  anything 
until  he  has  been  out  of  college  at  least  two  years.  For  an 
engineer,  a  knowledge  of  mechanics  is  a  fundamental  require- 
ment, but  except  where  mathematical  analysis  is  required,  I 
prefer  to  instruct  a  man  in  method  rather  than  in  accuracy 
and  speed.  He  will  learn  the  former  quicker  than  he  will  the 
latter. 

The  problem  of  developing  more  fully  this  power  of  accom- 
plishment is  no  simple  one,  and  I  do  not  refer  to  the  matter 
in  a  spirit  of  criticism — I  speak  from  the  standpoint  both  of 
an  employer  and  of  a  lecturer  in  two  universities — but  with 
a  view  to  calling  more  definite  attention  to  this  point,  with 
the  object  of  suggesting  a  definite  line  which  may  be  followed 
for  inducing  improvement. 

The  difficulty  of  estimating  the  task  of  a  student  in  shop 
work  by  guess  was  called  to  my  attention  recently  in  a  tech- 
nical school  which  I  was  visiting  with  a  class  of  graduate  stu- 
dents from  a  neighboring  university.  The  task  given  to  the 
boys  was  the  making  up  of  wooden  boxes,  and  the  time  to  make 
up  two  boxes  was  estimated  at  1J  hours.  The  boys  knew  they 
were  being  watched  and,  boy  fashion,  tried  to  make  a  record. 
One  of  them  completed  his  first  box  in  12  minutes  and  his 
second  in  11  minutes,  about  one-fourth  the  time  scheduled. 
This  boy  worked  too  fast,  at  a  speed  greater  than  he  could 
maintain  throughout  the  day  and  produce  good  results.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  estimated  time  was  unquestionably  too 
large.  The  proper  time  for  the  task  lay  somewhere  between 
the  two. 

In  the  shops  of  one  large  institution  in  this  vicinity — and  I 
am  told  that  it  is  one  of  the  few  in  the  country  which  go  as 
far  as  this — the  instructor  has  scheduled  the  time  that  it 
ought  to  take  for  each  of  the  regular  pieces  of  work  to  be  done. 
While  not  given  specific  times  for  the  tasks,  the  student  is 
expected  to  accomplish  a  certain  amount  of  work  during  the 
term.  This  is  a  step  in  the  right  direction.  It  would  be 


SANFORD  E.  THOMPSON.  135 

still  better  for  the  instructor  to  have  records  based  on  unit 
times,  which  should  be  so  accurate  that  the  student  could 
accomplish  each  job  within  a  definite  fixed  time,  a  record  of 
his  actual  performance  being  kept  on  file. 

To  see  how  some  of  the  students  actually  worked,  compared 
with  the  task  that  would  be  expected  of  a  machinist  working 
under  scientific  management,  one  of  my  assistant  engineers 
made  time  studies  of  certain  operations  in  the  shops  referred 
to.  These  times  were  then  compared  with  the  times  that  would 
be  fixed  in  practice  for  such  jobs  for  a  man  to  do  the  work  and 
receive  a  bonus.  In  one  case  the  result  was  very  good  indeed, 
the  student's  time  being  43.2  minutes  against  a  task  time  of 
30.2  minutes.  The  ratio  between  these  is  no  more  than  would 
be  expected  between  an  average  man  and  a  man  working 
under  task  and  bonus.  In  the  other  case  the  student  occupied 
four  times  the  task  time.  The  times  of  the  operations  are 
given  in  the  following  table.  The  unit  times  are  not  given 
individually  but  are  grouped  together  into  definite  operations 
for  comparison. 

In  the  operation  of  the  task  in  practice,  the  man  must  turn 

BORING  A  f"  AND  A    f|"  HOLE  COMPLETELY  THROUGH  AND  A  f"  HOLE 
|"  DEEP  IN  A  PIECE  OF  CAST  IRON  4"  Xl£"  X  1"  THICK. 

Hill  &  Clarke  High  Speed  Drilling  Machines. 

Student's        Task 
Time,  Time, 

Minutes.      Minutes. 

Drilling  3  holes    6.47*  1.44 

Clamping  and  handling  piece   12.76f  1.03 

Setting  drills  and  drawing  center   13.55  3.30 

Changing  drills   1.70  1.13 

Beaming    4.97  4.00 

Cleaning  up  and  lost  time  5.12 

Total  time   44.57  10.90$ 

*  Includes  2.14  minutes  calipering  hole. 

t  The  bed  of  student  'B  drilling  machine  was  not  adjustable  for  these 
times,  while  the  task  times  are  given  for  an  adjustable  bed.  This  ac- 
counts for  a  considerable  part  of  the  difference  in  this  item. 

I  Includes  allowance  for  lost  time  and  delays. 


136         SETTING  TASKS  FOB  COLLEGE  MEN. 

MAKING  LIVE  CENTER  FOB  12"  EEED  ENGINE  LATHE  FROM  6"  X  1^" 
DIAMETER  PIECE  OF  MACHINERY  STEEL. 

Eeed  12"  Engine  Lathe  with  High  Speed  Tool  Steel. 

Student's         Task 
Time,  Time,? 

Minutes.      Minutes. 

Preliminary  work  (getting  correct  taper)  etc 7.56  5.00 

Bough  turn,  main  portion   5.00  3.70 

Finish  cuts,  main  portion    3.02*  4.62f 

Turn  small  end    2.10  0.50 

Pile  and  fit   7.45  3.50 

Eough   turn   joint    4.25  1.65 

Trim  joint    3.62  2.50 

Adjusting  tools  (operations  not  exactly  alike)    4.97  7.50 

Turning  end  for  end  and  handling 1.26 

Extra  work  and  lost  time  (including  handling)   ....  5.28 

Total  time   43^25  3023* 

out  a  product  of  a  definite  quality  and  in  a  definite  time  in 
order  to  receive  his  bonus.  Why  in  such  work  as  the  shop 
and  the  laboratory,  where  the  same  pieces  of  work  occur  year 
after  year,  should  not  the  tasks  be  set  in  advance,  not  simply 
according  to  the  judgment  of  the  instructor,  not  by  records  of 
past  performance  that  may  or  may  not  be  accurate,  but  by  a 
really  scientific  analysis? 

That  this  can  be  done  is  not  merely  theory,  for  it  has  been 
worked  out  to  a  limited  extent  in  practice.  In  a  certain 
school,  tasks  in  the  chemical  laboratory  were  set  by  actual  time 
study.  Such  work  as  this  naturally  lends  itself  to  exact  analy- 
sis. In  another  case,  tasks  were  worked  out  in  classes  of  work 
that  at  first  thought  would  seem  not  susceptible  of  scientific 
analysis,  viz.,  the  reading  and  studying  of  scientific  text.  In 
both  instances  the  work  was  carried  out  by  Mr.  Hollis  God- 
frey, who  was  at  the  head  of  the  department  of  science  in  the 
institution  referred  to. 

For  a  period  extending  over  three  years,  studies  were  made 

*  Making  one  rough  cut  and  one  finish  cut  at  same  feed  as  for  rough 
cut. 

t  Making  two  finish  cuts  at  less  feed  than  for  rough  cuts. 
$  Includes  allowance  for  lost  time  and  delays. 


SANFOBD   E.   THOMPSON.  137 

on  the  times  taken  by  the  slow,  the  quick,  and  the  average 
boy  and  girl,  to  perform  the  routine  experiments  in  the 
chemical  laboratory,  and  out  of  some  seventy  tasks  set  on  the 
basis  of  these  tests,  only  three  were  found  to  be  too  long  for 
the  average  student.  The  tasks  were  figured  with  an  allow- 
ance for  discussion  of  work  by  instructor  and  another  allow- 
ance for  writing  out  notes  so  that  the  slow  student  was 
required  to  devote  extra  time  to  his  work.  One  of  the  assist- 
ants was  given  the  function  of  seeing  that  the  chemicals  and 
supplies  were  provided  for  each  exercise  to  avoid  delay  on 
that  account. 

For  the  setting  of  tasks  for  reading  or  studying  scientific 
text,  100  pupils  were  timed  to  find  how  long  it  took  them  to 
read  a  certain  number  of  pages  for  the  first  time,  the  second 
time,  and  the  third  time,  it  having  been  found  that  three 
readings  were  necessary  on  an  average  to  assimilate  matter  of 
this  character. 

For  other  classes  of  study,  such  as  the  reading  of  literature 
or  the  reading  of  history,  a  fewer  number  of  readings  would 
naturally  be  required  and  a  different  time  per  page. 

For  mathematical  calculations,  such  as  slide  rule  work  and 
compiling  of  tables  requiring  multiplication  and  division,  I 
have  found  it  possible  to  set  tasks  in  my  office,  paying  for 
this  clerical  work  in  accordance  with  the  actual  amount  of 
work  accomplished. 

These  illustrations  are  cited  simply  for  the  purpose  of  indi- 
cating the  possibility  of  setting  tasks  for  work  done  with  the 
brain  alone  as  well  as  that  done  with  the  hand  or  the  machine. 

If  I  am  correct  in  my  criticism,  that  different  lessons  and 
courses  in  different  departments  permit  a  wide  range  in  the 
amount  of  work  required  by  the  students,  then  the  problem 
is  worth  consideration.  Like  any  problem  worth  studying, 
the  solution  cannot  be  given  offhand,  and  only  general  sugges- 
tions can  be  made  as  to  the  method  of  handling  it. 

In  our  schools  and  colleges  more  attention  is  being  given  to 
the  personal  element.  In  our  city  schools  we  now  frequently 
find  a  vocational  department.  It  should  be  possible  to  take 


138        SETTING  TASKS  FOB  COLLEGE  MEN. 

another  functional  step  in  the  direction  I  have  named  by 
delegating  to  a  definite  group  of  men  the  function  of  studying 
and  comparing  the  work  required  by  the  different  courses 
and  departments.  To  do  this  properly,  a  scientific  analysis 
must  be  made  and  time  observations  taken  upon  students. 
Then  with  the  advice  of  the  individual  instructors  the  courses 
could  be  definitely  planned.  Just  as  the  task  time  fixed  for 
certain  machines  and  men  in  one  shop  may  be  applied  to 
similar  machines  and  men  in  another  shop,  so  having  once 
determined  the  unit  times  for  a  certain  course,  the  same 
units  could  be  readily  adapted  to  a  similar  course  in  other 
schools. 

In  making  this  suggestion,  I  am  well  aware  that  I  shall 
be  met  with  the  stereotyped  objection  that  "you  can  set  tasks 
for  other  kinds  of  work  but  you  can 't  set  tasks  for  this, ' '  but 
from  my  experience  I  know  that  it  is  possible  to  make  a 
scientific  analysis  and  to  set  tasks  in  practically  all  kinds  of 
work.  It  may  not  be  economical  to  set  tasks  in  all  kinds  of 
work — in  cases  for  example  where  the  operation  is  repeated 
only  occasionally.  If  a  course  of  study  or  laboratory  or  shop 
work  is  outlined  simply  for  a  single  year  and  is  not  to  be 
repeated,  there  may  be  a  question  whether  the  setting  of  tasks 
is  worth  while.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  as  is  usually  the  fact, 
the  same  course  is  repeated  year  after  year  with  only  a  few 
changes,  that  can  readily  be  provided,  for  if  the  analysis  of 
the  operations  has  been  properly  made,  the  scientific  layout 
of  the  work  is  practicable. 


DEPARTMENTAL   ORGANIZATION   AND 
EFFICIENCY. 

BY  HUGO  DIEMER, 
Professor  of  Industrial  Engineering,  Pennsylvania  State  College. 

During  the  past  three  years  in  conducting  the  department 
of  industrial  engineering  at  the  Pennsylvania  State  College, 
we  have  held  regular  weekly  meetings  of  the  department.  At 
these  meetings  there  has  been  the  freest  discussion  of  ques- 
tions of  policy  and  organization,  as  well  as  questions  dealing 
with  methods.  The  results  have  been  extremely  gratifying. 
There  is  no  question  in  the  minds  of  any  of  the  members  of 
the  department  but  that  the  meetings  have  resulted  in  co- 
operation, enthusiasm  and  accomplishment  of  results,  which 
under  old  methods  of  organization,  would  have  seemed  im- 
possible. Among  the  matters  which  have  been  taken  up  by 
the  department  are  the  following: 

Consideration  of  courses  and  establishment  of  new  courses 
including:  (a)  courses  leading  to  a  degree,  (6)  topical  courses. 

Two  new  courses  leading  to  a  degree  have  been  established ; 
namely,  the  four  years  *  course  in  industrial  engineering  and 
the  four  years'  course  for  teachers  of  manual  training. 

New  topical  courses  have  been  introduced  as  follows: 
furniture  design  and  construction,  painting,  pipe-fitting, 
plumbing,  sheet-metal  work,  time  and  motion  study,  lecture 
and  recitation  courses  in  machine-shop  methods,  in  foundry 
and  pattern  shop  methods,  in  factory  accounting,  factory 
economics  and  factory  planning. 

A  canvass  has  been  made  by  the  department  of  schools  in 
Pennsylvania  teaching  industrial  training,  manual  training, 
vocational  training  and  the  trades ;  ascertaining  their  methods 
and  facilities.  The  department  is  establishing  a  laboratory 
and  museum  of  industrial  education. 

A  committee  of  standards  of  the  department  determined  the 
duties,  responsibilities,  authority,  routine  and  teaching 
schedule  of  each  member  of  the  department,  and  has  put  them 
into  writing  and  also  in  the  form  of  a  graphical  chart. 

139 


140     DEPARTMENTAL   ORGANIZATION   AND   EFFICIENCY. 

The  department  has  initiated  cooperative  extension  work 
with  the  local  school  system. 

We  have  introduced  planning  systems  and  detailed  instruc- 
tion cards  into  all  of  our  shops. 

We  have  established  an  apprenticeship  system. 

We  have  developed  our  construction  shops  on  a  commercial 
and  self-sustaining  basis. 

Among  other  matters  taken  up  by  the  department  and 
carried  through  to  a  successful  finish  are  the  following : 

Establishment  of  departmental  accounts  on  a  double 
entry  system. 

Reviewing  of  recently  published  books  bearing  on  sub- 
jects taught  by  the  department. 

Selection  of  books  to  be  purchased  and  magazine  sub- 
scriptions. 

Distribution  of  expenses  and  allotment  of  fees. 

Arrangement  of  equipment,  of  offices,  files,  desks,  etc. 

Alterations  in  lighting  and  power  transmission  systems. 

Records  of  grades,  absences  and  departmental  regula- 
tions as  to  excuses  from  work  and  how  it  is  to  be  made  up. 

Continuous  inventory  of  stores  and  equipment,  together 
with  proper  depreciation  charges. 

First  aid  to  the  injured. 

Methods  of  teaching  manual  work,  including :  comparison 
of  French,  German,  Russian  and  Swedish  methods  as  well 
as  methods  in  vogue  in  various  American  schools. 

Kinds  of  shop  work  acceptable  for  entrance  requirements. 

Schedules  of  instructors;  subjects  and  rooms. 

Use  of  equipment  by  students  outside  of  class  time. 

Lectures  by  visitors. 

Maintenance  and  repairs  to  equipment. 

Summer  school  courses  for  teachers  to  be  offered  by  the 
department. 

Standardizing,  filing  and  indexing  of  drawings,  catalogs 
and  other  memoranda  for  reference. 

In  this  outline  of  the  work  accomplished  at  our  department 
meetings  and  in  my  discussion  on  the  results  of  experience  in 


HUGO   DIEMER. 


141 


teaching  scientific  shop  management  t  I  have  outlined  some 
definite  and  concrete  accomplishments.  In  view  of  the  above 
results  attained  it  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  add  a  few 
thoughts  and  suggestions  to  accompany  the  many  others 
which  have  been  made  in  the  direction  of  furthering  academic 
efficiency. 

I  believe  there  is  a  splendid  opportunity  in  the  colleges  and 
universities  for  work  in  providing  means  for  attaining  higher 
efficiency  by  the  individual  instructor  and  for  the  develop- 
ment of  loyalty  and  enthusiasm  among  members  of  the  in- 
structing force  by  systematic  investigation  and  resultant 
action. 

A  systematic  canvass  made  of  all  members  of  the  instruct- 
ing force  in  which  each  member  would  be  asked  just  what  is 
needed  in  his  work  to  make  him  more  efficient,  and  from  each 
department  and  sub-department  head  as  to  what  is  needed  to 
make  him  and  the  respective  members  of  the  teaching  force 
under  his  jurisdiction  more  efficient,  would  if  carried  out  in 
the  proper  spirit  result  in  the  accumulation  of  many  sug- 
gestions. Some  of  these  suggestions  would  be  impracticable ; 
some  of  them  would  be  negative;  but  it  is  reasonably  certain 
that  there  is  a  sufficient  number  of  members  in  every  teaching 
force  with  sane  and  positive  constructive  ideas  for  betterment, 
to  guarantee  that  such  a  canvass  would  result  in  the  securing 
of  many  ideas  possible  to  carry  out. 

Talking  from  the  point  of  view  of  a  man  who  has  spent  a 
goodly  number  of  years  in  commercial  work  and  has  seen 
capable  men  develop  in  the  employ  of  large  corporations,  it  is 
my  opinion  that  few  educational  institutions  are  inefficient 
because  of  insufficient  working  hours  or  an  insufficiently  hard 
day's  task  demanded  of  the  instructor.  In  industrial  work 
men  of  the  mental  calibre  of  college  instructors  are  provided 
far  more  help  in  the  way  of  stenographers,  clerks  and  drafts- 
men than  is  provided  in  colleges.  In  industry,  a  department 
head  is  encouraged  to  avail  himself  of  whatever  help  is  needed 

t  PROCEEDINGS,  Vol.  XIX.,  p.  153. 
10 


142     DEPAKTMENTAL    ORGANIZATION    AND   EFFICIENCY. 

in  the  way  of  stenographers,  clerks  and  draftsmen  to  make 
him  a  more  effective  producer.  In  practically  every  college  in 
the  United  States  the  individual  instructor  must  be  his  own 
stenographer,  keep  his  own  records,  and  do  his  own  drafting, 
thus  reducing  his  productivity  and  efficiency  in  his  specialty 
from  twenty  to  eighty  per  cent.  In  practically  every  college 
in  the  United  States,  department  heads  are  insufficiently  pro- 
vided with  stenographic,  clerical  and  drafting  help  and  must 
make  negotiations  with  administrative  officers  for  the  loan  of 
such  help  from  their  offices  which  have  also  usually  an  insuffi- 
cient supply  of  it. 

In  very  few  colleges  in  the  United  States  are  individual 
instructors  provided  with  private  study  rooms  where  they  can 
study  free  from  interruptions  at  certain  definite  periods.  In 
attempting  to  introduce  commercial  efficiency  some  governing 
boards  and  administrative  authorities  require  instructors  to 
be  at  their  desks  during  college  hours.  Such  a  requirement 
if  accompanied  by  private  study-rooms  would  be  no  hardship 
and  would  be  welcomed  by  most  teachers,  as  it  would  tend  to 
shorten  the  necessary  night  work  which  must  be  done  by  every 
teacher,  no  matter  how  competent,  in  the  preparation  of  his 
next  day's  work.  This  constant  night  work  by  all  capable 
teachers,  much  of  which  must  be  done  after  social  functions 
and  night  meetings  of  faculties  and  committees,  is  usually  not 
realized  by  critics  outside  the  educational  field. 

At  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  Company's  School  for  Ap- 
prentices at  Altoona  there  are  three  teachers.  These  teachers 
are  provided  the  entire  daily  services  of  a  man  who  acts  as 
clerk  and  stenographer.  As  a  result  the  instruction  papers, 
notes,  references,  records,  etc.,  are  in  excellent  order.  If  the 
industries  consider  it  worth  while  to  do  away  with  avoidable 
fatigue  and  also  with  clerical  work  by  teachers  not  trained 
in  that  direction,  why  should  not  educational  institutions  ? 

Are  educational  institutions  systematically  providing  for 
the  development  of  the  individual  instructor  so  that  he  may 
see  more  efficient  methods  and  himself  become  more  efficient? 
So  far  as  concerns  visits  to  other  institutions  they  are  not. 


HUGO   DIEMEK.  143 

While  engaged  in  industrial  work  I  have  frequently  had 
occasion  to  show  methods  of  the  establishments  with  which  I 
was  connected,  to  engineers,  superintendents,  foremen,  and 
cost  department  clerks  who  were  sent  out  on  visiting  trips  by 
other  establishments  for  the  purpose  of  acquainting  them  with 
the  methods  of  other  companies.  To  some  extent  such  visits 
are  made  by  members  of  college  teaching  staffs.  However, 
they  are  usually  made  by  deans  or  heads  of  departments  and 
generally  only  on  such  occasions  as  the  establishment  of  a  new 
laboratory  or  the  equipping  of  a  new  building.  Such  trips  are 
seldom  instituted  and  authorized  for  teachers  in  the  ranks  to 
be  taken  at  times  when  the  work  is  in  active  progress  at  the 
institution  visited. 

In  addition  to  the  systematic  inquiry  into  means  for  de- 
velopment of  individual  efficiency,  I  would  recommend  a 
similar  systematic  canvass  as  to  means  for  development  of 
loyalty.  Systematic  and  continuous  efforts  must  be  made 
to  make  the  individual  teacher's  work  inspiring  and  to  get 
each  man  interested  in  his  work.  The  system  of  promotion 
must  be  such  as  to  afford  numerous  examples  whereby  ambi- 
tion may  be  preserved.  Fair  play  for  all  and  the  avoidance 
of  sharp  practices  in  dealing  with  employees  have  been  recog- 
nized as  vital  principles  in  developing  loyalty  in  the  indus- 
tries, and  these  same  principles  should  prevail  in  all  educa- 
tional organizations.  The  individual  teacher  should  be  en- 
couraged to  undertake  tasks  of  public  service,  to  do  research 
work,  consistent  with  his  teaching  duties,  and  to  write  papers 
over  his  own  signature.  The  progressive  department  head 
will  realize  that  such  encouragement  of  the  individual  teacher 
will  tend  to  strengthen  his  department  and  add  to  the  prestige 
of  the  department  head.  Social  recognition,  graciously  ac- 
corded to  the  individual  teacher  by  the  department  head  in 
introducing  him  and  his  work  to  visitors  on  public  and  semi- 
public  occasions,  will  do  much  to  develop  loyalty. 

I  believe  the  foregoing  phases  of  academic  efficiency  are 
worthy  of  more  attention  than  has  been  accorded  them  in 
the  past. 


144     DEPARTMENTAL   ORGANIZATION   AND   EFFICIENCY. 

In  my  discussion  on  the  results  of  experience  in  teaching 
scientific  management  I  dwelt  particularly  on  a  single  phase 
of  our  four  years'  course  in  industrial  engineering,  namely, 
the  class  in  machine  shop  time  study.  We  have  already  gradu- 
ated three  classes  in  our  four  years'  course,  and  a  brief  out- 
line of  the  classes  peculiar  to  this  course  may  be  helpful.  The 
course  is  identical  with  the  other  engineering  courses  in  the 
freshman  and  first  semester  of  the  sophomore  year.  In  the 
second  semester  of  the  sophomore  year  a  lecture  and  reci- 
tation course  is  introduced  on  foundry  and  pattern  shop 
organization  and  methods.  In  the  junior  year  classes  are  in- 
troduced in  machine  shop  organization  and  methods,  a  course 
in  machine  shop  time  study  and  English  economic  history  in 
the  first  semester.  In  the  second  semester  manufacturing 
accounts  and  factory  economics  are  taken  up  as  well  as  Amer- 
ican economic  history  and  logic.  In  the  first  semester  of  the 
senior  year,  factory  economics  is  continued  with  especial 
attention  to  scientific  management.  Principles  of  economics, 
labor  problems,  corporations  and  finance,  and  also  psychology 
are  taken  up  this  semester.  In  the  second  semester  of  the 
senior  year  a  designing  room  course  in  factory  planning  is 
taken  up,  also  contracts  and  specifications,  a  continuation  of 
corporations  and  finance,  also  an  option  as  to  political  parties, 
railroad  economics,  or  money  and  banking. 

The  mathematics,  science  and  language  work  is  identical 
with  that  in  all  our  other  engineering  courses,  while  the 
machine  design,  heat  engineering,  electrical  engineering,  and 
experimental  engineering  may  be  said  to  represent  about  as 
much  electrical  engineering  as  is  given  to  mechanical  engi- 
neering students  and  about  as  much  mechanical  engineering 
as  is  given  to  electrical  engineering  students. 

Our  four  years'  course  in  industrial  engineering  is  a  de- 
cidedly different  training  in  scientific  management  from  a  one 
or  two  hours'  per  week  class  in  which  an  attempt  is  made  to 
combine  theory  of  accounts,  contracts  and  specifications,  cost 
accounting  and  scientific  management,  using  a  single  text  for 
the  entire  combination. 


ACADEMIC   EFFICIENCY. 

BY    WILLIAM    KENT, 
Consulting  Engineer,  Montclair,  N.  J. 

About  ten  years  ago  I  was  asked  by  the  president  and 
general  manager  of  a  large  manufacturing  corporation  to 
advise  him  how  to  improve  the  performance  of  his  boiler  house. 
During  the  previous  winter  it  was  pushed  to  its  utmost  to 
deliver  enough  steam  to  run  the  engines  and  to  keep  the 
buildings  warm,  and  the  next  winter,  on  account  of  extensions 
to  the  factory  and  increased  output,  the  demand  for  steam 
would  be  still  greater.  Before  beginning  my  work  the  presi- 
dent told  me  something  of  the  history  of  the  company,  and  of 
how  he  came  to  be  the  general  manager.  It  had  grown  in 
fifty  years  from  a  small  concern  to  a  large  one,  occupying 
several  blocks  of  ground.  The  business  was  the  manufacture 
of  a  variety  of  shelf  hardware.  He  had  for  several  years  been 
a  director  and  the  manager  of  the  sales  department,  and  on 
the  death  of  the  former  factory  manager  the  directors  insisted 
on  his  taking  the  place,  although  as  he  said  he  knew  nothing 
about  running  a  factory.  He  started  in  to  learn  how  by 
calling  in  the  best  outside  expert  advice  available.  He  was 
paying  $10,000  for  a  year's  services  of  a  highly  skilled  expert 
in  machinery,  jigs,  and  methods  of  manufacturing,  who  was 
making  a  revolution  in  the  shop,  which  amply  justified  the 
high  price  paid  for  his  services.  This  man  said  he  knew  noth- 
ing about  boilers,  and  therefore  I  was  called  in  to  tackle  the 
boiler  problem.  Incidentally  the  president  told  me  that  the 
catalogue  of  the  products  made  by  the  concern  contained 
14,000  items,  each  of  which  involved  patterns,  jigs,  templates, 
storage,  book-keeping,  records  and  correspondence.  Probably 
half  of  these  items  were  either  obsolete  or  in  very  small 
demand,  and  another  large  fraction  were  unprofitable  to 
handle.  Another  $10,000  might  have  been  properly  spent  in 

145 


146  ACADEMIC  EFFICIENCY. 

making  a  selection  of  which  of  the  14,000  items  should  be 
abandoned  and  in  printing  a  new  catalogue. 

In  regard  to  the  boilers,  the  president  told  me  I  could  get 
all  information  available  from  two  men,  the  superintendent  of 
the  factory  and  the  chief  engineer,  who  were  at  loggerheads. 
One  had  told  the  president  one  story  about  the  boilers,  and 
the  other  an  opposite  story,  and  he  did  not  know  which  one  to 
believe.  He  called  the  superintendent  into  the  office  to  tell  me 
his  story,  and,  dismissing  him,  called  in  the  engineer  who  told 
me  the  other  story.  I  then  had  the  engineer  take  me  through 
the  whole  factory,  including  the  power  plant.  On  my  return 
to  the  office  I  told  the  president  that  the  engineer  had  told  the 
facts,  and  that  the  superintendent  had  not  because  he  was 
ignorant;  he  knew  nothing  about  a  power  plant  and  never 
would  know,  for  his  bump  of  conceit  was  too  great  to  permit 
of  his  learning.  I  reported  further  that  the  trouble  from  lack 
of  steam  was  not  the  fault  of  the  boilers — there  were  about 
25  of  them,  crowding  the  boiler  house  to  its  capacity,  and 
there  was  no  available  land  for  an  addition  to  it — they  were 
making  as  much  steam  as  they  should  be  called  on  to  make 
with  due  regard  to  economy  of  fuel;  but  the  trouble  was 
entirely  owing  to  the  great  waste  of  steam  throughout  the 
factory  in  winter  time.  Live  steam  was  used  for  heating,  and 
numerous  traps  were  wasting  both  steam  and  hot  water.  As 
a  result  of  my  investigation  an  exhaust-steam  heating  system 
was  installed,  and  that  stopped  all  complaints  of  the  insuffi- 
cient supply  of  steam. 

This  long  story  about  a  factory  may  seem  to  have  nothing 
to  do  with  academic  efficiency,  but  there  are  several  points  of 
resemblance  between  its  condition  and  that  of  some  educa- 
tional establishments.  They,  like  it,  are  suffering  from  in- 
efficient management  continued  through  a  long  period  of 
years ;  they  have  too  many  items  in  their  catalogue ;  heads  of 
departments  at  loggerheads;  a  board  of  directors  who  are 
capitalists,  but  who  know  nothing  of  the  details  of  the  business 
they  are  supposed  to  direct ;  a  president  and  general  manager 
who  is  well  versed  in  the  advertising  part  of  the  business,  but 


WILLIAM  KENT.  147 

knows  nothing  of  the  best  ways  of  producing  its  product.  The 
factory,  however,  has  two  points  of  difference  from  and  advan- 
tages over  the  college.  (1)  The  competition  of  its  rivals  forces 
it  to  improve  its  methods,  while  the  college  has  no  such 
stimulus  to  improvement.  (2)  The  manager  of  the  factory  re- 
ferred to,  knows  that  he  knows  nothing  about  the  best  way  of 
running  a  factory  and  therefore  calls  in  outside  expert  assist- 
ance, the  manager  of  the  college  thinks  he  knows  it  all,  and 
therefore  has  no  need  of  advice. 

I  said  some  educational  establishments,  not  all.  There  are 
others,  and  this  brings  me  to  another  story.  It  is  about  a 
university. 

A  certain  large  university  more  than  twenty-five  years  ago 
had  an  engineering  college  that  was  already  suffering  from 
dry  rot,  although  it  was  only  about  ten  years  old.  It  had  a 
good  location,  excellent  buildings  and  equipment,  and  ample 
funds,  yet  the  college  had  lost  prestige,  and  the  number  of 
students  was  decreasing.  The  president  of  the  university 
knew  nothing  about  engineering  education,  but  he  was  wise 
enough  not  to  pretend  to  know  anything  about  it.  He  asked 
half  a  dozen  or  more  consulting  engineers  and  engineering 
professors  to  visit  the  college  and  independently  to  give  him 
written  reports  as  to  what  ought  to  be  done  to  improve  it. 
I  was  one  of  the  visitors.  I  found  that  the  college  was 
divided  into  two  independent  departments,  one  theoretical 
and  the  other  practical,  each  presided  over  by  a  professor  who 
was  responsible  only  to  the  president.  I  spent  a  morning 
with  one  of  these  professors  and  an  afternoon  with  the  other. 
Each  told  a  tale  of  woe,  about  the  utter  worthlessness  and 
total  depravity  of  the  other  man.  I  advised  the  dismissal  of 
both,  and  the  appointment  of  a  man  who  was  big  enough  to 
be  the  head  of  the  whole  college.  Some  months  were  spent 
by  the  president  of  the  university  in  getting  these  reports  and 
in  interviewing  different  experts,  including  men  whose  names 
had  been  suggested  as  qualified  for  the  position.  He  selected 
the  right  man,  gave  him  full  authority,  approved  his  every 
request,  and  the  trustees  gave  him  everything  he  asked  for  in 


148  ACADEMIC  EFFICIENCY. 

the  way  of  competent  assistants  and  additional  equipment. 
The  theoretical  professor  resigned,  and  the  practical  one  grace- 
fully subsided  into  a  minor  subordinate  position,  where  he 
gave  no  trouble.  The  college  grew  with  great  rapidity.  In 
ten  years  it  was  in  the  front  rank  of  the  engineering  colleges 
of  the  world,  which  position  it  still  holds. 

Note  the  points  of  similarity  between  the  factory  and  the 
university  as  related  in  these  two  stories.  Each  was  suffer- 
ing from  inefficient  management,  each  had  a  president  who 
was  ignorant  of  the  details  of  the  business,  but  who  was 
conscious  of  his  ignorance  and  was  willing  to  take  advice  from 
outside.  In  each  case  the  advice  was  taken,  with  the  best 
possible  results. 

My  subject  is  entitled  Academic  Efficiency.  I  use  this  short 
term  merely  because  it  has  been  used  before  to  mean  the 
efficiency  of  educational  methods,  and  it  may  be  necessary  to 
explain  that  the  word  "academic"  here  means  relating  to  an 
academy  or  educational  establishment,  and  not,  as  it  some- 
times means,  "unreal"  or  "unpractical."  The  word  effi- 
ciency is  often  used  with  different  meanings.  Dr.  Eliot,  ex- 
president  of  Harvard  University,  in  his  little  book  on  ' '  Educa- 
tion for  Efficiency"  defines  it  as  "effective  power  for  work 
and  service  during  a  healthy  and  active  life,"  and  he  says 
1 '  national  education  will  be  effective  in  proportion  as  it  secures 
in  the  masses  the  development  of  this  power  and  its  applica- 
tion in  infinitely  various  forms  to  the  national  industries  and 
the  national  service."  The  engineer  uses  a  more  restricted 
and  technical  definition,  the  quotient  of  output  divided  by 
input,  or  the  relation  or  ratio  of  the  result  achieved  to  the 
effort  in  obtaining  it.  Mr.  Harrington  Emerson  objects  to 
this  definition  as  insufficient  in  its  not  including  an  equitable 
standard  of  achievement  or  output  as  one  of  its  factors,  and 
defines  efficiency  as  the  "relation  between  an  equitable 
standard  and  an  actual  achievement,"  or  "the  relation  be- 
tween what  is  and  what  could  be." 

Strictly  speaking,  the  engineer's  definition  is  limited  to 
cases  in  which  both  the  input  and  the  output  may  be 


WILLIAM  KENT.  149 

measured  in  the  same  unit,  or  in  units  that  are  convertible  one 
into  the  other,  such  as  foot-pounds  and  heat-units,  but  it  is  a 
convenient  definition  for  many  cases  in  which  neither  the 
whole  output  nor  the  whole  input  are  capable  of  accurate 
measurement  in  similar  terms.  For  example, 

"We  spend  or  give:  We  get  or  gain: 

Input.  Output. 

Time,  Money  or  saleable  goods, 

Money  or  raw  material,  Health, 

Physical  labor,  Recreation, 

Mental  labor,  Education, 

Nervous  energy,  Satisfaction. 

Health, 
Wear  and  tear  of  machinery. 

If  we  take  the  engineers'  definition  expanded  in  this  way 
so  as  to  include  in  the  input  every  conceivable  kind  of  expendi- 
ture and  in  the  output  every  conceivable  kind  of  achievement, 
it  will  apply  to  every  activity  of  man.  The  efficiency  while 
it  cannot  be  stated  in  figures,  as  a  percentage,  is  measured  by 
the  value  of  the  output  in  relation  to  the  input  or  expendi- 
ture. Thus  a  business  man  may  spend  every  one  of  the  items 
listed  under  the  head  of  input,  and  measured  by  a  money 
standard  the  result  may  show  a  high  efficiency,  but  measured 
by  a  broader  standard,  in  which  the  result  as  to  health  is  a 
negative  quantity,  it  is  most  inefficient.  Then  if  he  takes  to 
playing  golf  he  may  spend  time,  money  and  physical  labor, 
and  gain  health :  The  efficiency  by  the  money  standard  is  zero, 
but  by  the  broader  standard,  including  health,  recreation  and 
satisfaction,  he  may  consider  that  the  efficiency  of  the  opera- 
tion is  100  per  cent. 

A  college  spends  all  the  items  listed  under  " input."  Its 
efficiency  is  zero  from  the  money  standard,  for  its  business  is 
not  to  make  money,  and  may  be  high  or  low  measured  in  the 
other  items  listed  under  output.  By  Mr.  Emerson's  defi- 
nition, the  relation  of  an  equitable  standard  to  the  actual 
achievement,  or  the  relation  between  what  is  and  what  could 


150  ACADEMIC  EFFICIENCY. 

be,  we  compare  the  actual  output  in  health,  recreation,  educa- 
tion and  satisfaction,  with  what  might  be  realized  under  the 
best  possible  conditions  of  system  and  management.  Are  the 
results  what  they  ought  to  be  in  kind,  in  quality  or  in  quan- 
tity, and  if  they  are  not,  what  are  the  defects  and  how  can 
they  be  remedied? 

In  the  big  factory  of  which  the  story  has  been  told,  the 
product  included  14,000  items,  many  of  which  should  have 
been  abandoned,  and  much  of  the  inefficiency  was  due  to  the 
factory's  making  products  that  should  not  have  been  made. 
When  an  efficiency  expert  begins  his  operations  in  a  factory 
his  first  questions  are :  What  kind  of  product  is  made  ?  Why 
is  it  made  ?  Why  not  abandon  it  if  it  is  not  profitable  ?  The 
same  questions  might  be  asked  of  a  college.  The  next  set  of 
questions  covers  the  quality.  Is  the  quality  too  highly  refined 
and  too  costly,  so  that  its  market  is  limited  ?  Is  it  too  common 
and  cheap,  so  that  it  has  to  be  brought  into  competition  with 
the  poorest  goods  on  the  market?  Is  it  out  of  date  and  un- 
fashionable? Is  the  quality  what  it  ought  to  be,  and  if  not 
what  are  the  reasons,  and  how  can  it  be  improved?  Surely 
these  questions  may  be  asked  of  a  college,  and  it  is  the  gen- 
eral belief  that  the  answers  would  not  be  complimentary  to 
the  college.  There  are  serious  defects  in  the  quality  of  the 
college  product. 

Next  come  questions  as  to  quantity.  Is  the  factory  turning 
out  too  much  of  one  kind  of  goods,  so  that  the  market  is 
glutted  and  the  price  too  low  ?  Is  it  turning  out  too  little,  so 
that  it  is  not  doing  as  much  business  as  it  might  do?  Is  it 
turning  out  too  much  of  one  kind  and  not  enough  of  another ; 
and  if  so,  what  changes  should  be  made  so  as  to  establish  a 
proper  balance?  Is  the  college  overcrowding  the  professions 
with  men  who  are  not  needed  in  them  ?  Is  it  failing  to  supply 
the  demand  for  the  kind  of  men  who  are  needed?  The  com- 
mon opinion  is  that  both  of  these  questions  must  be  answered 
in  the  affirmative.  The  last  report  of  the  Carnegie  Founda- 
tion for  the  Advancement  of  Teaching  says,  ' i  In  almost  every 
state  of  the  Union  there  are  more  colleges  in  name  than  the 


WILLIAM  KENT.  151 

country  needs  or  can  afford.  They  have  been  started  without 
much  regard  to  the  ultimate  educational  demands — weak  and 
often  superfluous  colleges.  In  many  cases  their  existence 
makes  impossible  that  of  good  high  schools  which  would  far 
better  serve  the  educational  interests  of  the  community." 

After  these  questions  of  kind,  quality,  and  quantity  of 
product  are  considered,  then  comes  the  question  of  cost  per 
unit  of  product  and  of  possible  methods  of  reducing  that  cost. 
In  the  factory  the  solution  of  these  questions  is  one  of  great 
difficulty  and  complexity.  It  includes  the  items  of  location, 
buildings,  machinery,  system  of  organization,  functional  fore- 
manship,  statistics,  accounting,  planning  of  work,  routing  it 
through  the  shop,  methods  of  payment  of  wages,  keeping 
high-priced  men  only  on  high-priced  work  and  finally  time- 
study  resolved  into  its  elements,  that  is  motion-study.  I 
quote  from  Frank  B.  Gilbreth's  new  book  on  Motion  Study: 

"There  is  no  waste  of  any  kind  in  the  world  that  equals  the  waste 
from  needless,  ill-directed,  and  ineffective  motions.  .  .  .  Tremendous 
savings  are  possible  in  the  work  of  everybody — they  are  not  for  one 
class,  they  are  not  for  the  trades  only;  they  are  for  the  officers,  the 
schools,  the  colleges,  the  stores,  the  household,  and  the  farms.  ...  It 
is  obvious  that  these  improvements  must  and  will  come  in  time.  But 
there  is  inestimable  loss  in  every  hour  of  delay.  The  waste  of  energy 
of  the  workers  in  the  industries  today  is  pitiful.  ...  In  the  meantime, 
while  we  are  waiting  for  the  politicians  and  educators  to  realize  the  im- 
portance of  this  subject  and  to  create  the  bureaus  and  societies  to  under- 
take and  complete  the  work,  we  need  not  be  idle.  There  is  work  in 
abundance  to  be  done.  Motion  study  must  be  applied  to  all  the  indus- 
tries. Our  trade  schools  and  engineering  colleges  can: 

' '  1.  Observe  the  best  work  of  the  best  workers. 

"2.  Photograph  the  methods  used. 

"3.  Eecord  the  methods  used. 

"4.  Eecord  outputs. 

' '  5.  Eecord  costs. 

"6.  Deduce  laws. 

"7.  Establish  laboratories  'for  trying  out  laws/ 

"8.  Embody  laws  in  instructions. 

"9.  Publish  bulletins. 

' '  10.  Cooperate  to  spread  results  and  to  train  the  rising  generation. ' ' 


152  ACADEMIC  EFFICIENCY. 

Mr.  Gilbreth  refers  to  motion-study  of  the  industries  that  are 
producing  material  wealth,  but  his  words  may  be  applied  to 
the  industry  of  educating  men  and  women,  that  is  to  the 
schools  and  colleges. 

The  methods  of  reducing  the  cost  per  unit  of  product  in 
industrial  concerns  have  now  been  reduced  to  a  science  by  the 
management  experts,  Taylor,  Gantt,  Emerson,  Parkhurst  and 
others.  In  educational  circles,  only  the  merest  beginning  has 
been  made.  Bulletin  No.  5  of  the  Carnegie  Foundation  for 
the  Advancement  of  Teaching,  a  quarto  pamphlet  of  134 
pages,  entitled  "Academic  and  Industrial  Efficiency/'  con- 
tains a  report  by  Morris  Llewellyn  Cooke  of  the  investigation 
of  the  department  of  physics  of  eight  different  colleges  or 
universities.  Mr.  Cooke  has  had  several  years'  experience  as 
expert  on  management  of  industrial  works,  and  is  now  Di- 
rector of  Public  Works  of  the  city  of  Philadelphia.  His 
report  is  only  a  preliminary  one,  and  covers  little  more  than 
a  statistical  investigation  of  the  cost  of  instruction  in  physics 
per  student-hour,  and  some  observations  on  methods  of  ad- 
ministration, and  on  the  economical  use  of  buildings  and  of 
the  time  of  the  professors  and  instructors,  in  all  of  which  he 
found  great  differences.  The  total  cost  of  physics  per  student- 
hour  at  Harvard  was  $1.08  and  at  Wisconsin  $0.60.  Of  these 
totals  the  interest  on  plant  and  equipment  and  administrative 
expense  account  is  $0.53  at  Harvard,  and  $0.18  at  Wisconsin. 
There  are  differences  in  the  colleges  which  are  far  more  im- 
portant, however,  than  those  that  can  be  expressed  in  dollars 
and  cents.  For  example,  Mr.  Cooke  found  one  in  which  the 
professors  showed  the  heartiest  interest  in  the  progress  of  each 
individual  student,  and  another  in  which  "every  time  the 
students  were  mentioned,  there  were  evidences  that  the  teach- 
ers had  in  mind  the  students'  scholarly  inferiority  and  way- 
wardness. ' ' 

The  cost  per  student-hour  for  any  subject  may  be  obtained 
as  in  Mr.  Cooke 's  investigation.  It  will  be  a  far  larger  task 
to  determine  the  efficiency  of  the  student-hour — that  is  what 
return  in  valuable  education  the  student  gets  for  the  expendi- 


WILLIAM  KENT. 


153 


ture  of  the  thousands  of  student-hours  that  he  spends  in  col- 
lege. We  have  as  yet  no  standards  of  measurement  by  which 
educational  efficiency  can  be  satisfactorily  measured,  but  it 
cannot  be  doubted  that  some  day  such  standards  will  be  found, 
when  well  qualified  experts  are  employed  to  find  them.  For 
a  method  of  obtaining  such  a  standard  in  English  composition, 
see  the  writer's  paper  in  Proceedings  of  the  Society  for  the 
Promotion  of  Engineering  Education  in  1907  on  "An  Experi- 
ment in  Teaching  English  to  Freshmen  in  a  University. " 

Efficiency,  according  to  the  engineers'  definition,  is  the  rela- 
tion of  output  to  input,  or  the  relation  of  the  result  to  the 
effort  and  cost  expended  in  achieving  it.  From  the  college 
student's  standpoint,  the  input  is  four  years  of  time  and  say 
$2,000  to  $4,000  in  money.  The  output  is  what  he  receives 
for  that  amount  of  time  and  money.  Let  us  put  what  he  re- 
ceives in  tabular  form  under  two  heads,  life  and  study. 


Life    - 


Acquaintance. 

Companionship. 

Fraternity. 

Social  Activity. 

Athletics. 

Beading. 

Leisure. 

Travel. 

Moral  Uplift. 


Study  -< 


Cultural 


Technical 


Vocational 


Curious 


Disciplinary. 
Informational. 
Foundations  of 
Science  and  Art. 

Eelating  directly 
to  life  work. 


i: 


Non-useful  or 
dilettante. 


How  many  hours  out  of  the  24  in  a  day  are  student-hours, 
and  how  many  are  devoted  to  so-called  college  life?  Is  his 
time  properly  divided  between  the  activities  of  life  and  study? 
Of  the  student-hours  is  there  the  proper  balance  between  the 
cultural  and  the  other  branches?  How  and  by  whom  is  this 
balance  determined  ?  Which  of  the  courses  are  prescribed  and 
which  are  elective,  and  why?  What  text-books  are  used,  and 
why?  Are  particular  courses  taught  by  the  text-book  and 
recitation  method,  by  the  lecture  and  note-book  method,  by  the 
problem  method,  or  by  the  laboratory  method?  Is  each 
teacher  free  to  use  his  own  method  or  is  the  method  deter- 
mined by  a  department  head  or  committee  or  by  other 


154  ACADEMIC  EFFICIENCY. 

authority?  What  experimental  pedagogical  work  has  been 
done  to  discover  the  relative  efficiency  of  different  methods? 
What  are  the  results  of  such  experiments?  Have  they  been 
reduced  to  statistical  form  and  published?  What  is  the  ad- 
ministration doing  to  improve  educational  efficiency  ?  Is  there 
any  method  employed  to  measure  the  relative  efficiency  of 
different  teachers,  or  of  the  same  teacher  in  different  years  or 
when  using  different  methods  ?  How  are  the  tenures  of  office, 
promotion,  salary,  etc.,  determined?  How  are  poor  teachers 
got  rid  of  or  transferred  to  other  positions  in  which  they  may 
be  more  efficient?  What  is  the  organization  of  the  college, 
and  what  are  the  efficiencies  of  the  board  of  trustees,  the  presi- 
dent, and  the  heads  of  departments?  If  an  investigator  like 
Mr.  Cooke,  or  preferably  a  commission  of  investigators,  were 
to  report  to  the  Carnegie  Foundation  answers  to  these  ques- 
tions after  a  year's  examination  of  a  dozen  or  more  institu- 
tions of  learning,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  an  appalling  lack  of 
efficiency  would  be  disclosed.  The  commission  would  find 
every  grade  of  goodness  and  of  badness  in  the  teaching  staff, 
teachers  generally  overworked,  underpaid  and  dissatisfied  and 
on  the  lookout  for  positions  elsewhere.  It  would  find  self- 
perpetuating  boards  of  trustees  responsible  to  nobody,  indi- 
vidual trustees  chosen  not  for  any  educational  qualification, 
but  solely  because  they  are  men  of  wealth  and  influence; 
presidents  chosen  through  personal  or  political  favoritism, 
whose  ideas  of  education  are  those  of  the  middle  ages,  and 
whose  methods  of  government  are  those  of  the  tyrant.  It 
would  find  the  conditions  mentioned  by  President  Benton,  of 
the  University  of  Vermont,  in  his  inaugural  address,  1911, 
namely,  the  election  of  new  members  of  the  faculty  dependent 
entirely  on  the  dictum  of  the  president,  "the  administrative 
office  a  veritable  cesspool  where  unpleasant  experiences  are 
deposited,"  "a  coterie  of  professors  painfully  sycophantic  in 
the  presence  of  their  'lord  and  master'  and  bitterly  denun- 
ciatory of  him  when  left  to  themselves,"  "reprehensible 
hypocrisy  by  those  who  teach,"  etc.  President  Benton  seems 
to  be  unaware  of  the  fact  that  the  sycophancy  and  hypocrisy 


WILLIAM  KENT.  155 

which  he  thus  bewails  are  the  inevitable  results  of  government 
by  an  ignorant  despot,  and  that  they  can  be  done  away  with 
only  by  a  radical  change  in  the  system  of  government.  I  do 
not  wish  to  be  understood  as  believing  that  the  conditions 
thus  described  are  universal.  There  are  many  institutions  in 
which  there  is  no  autocratic  government,  and  in  which  the 
government  approaches  in  some  respect  to  democratic  ideals, 
where  free  speech  is  possible,  where  merit  is  recognized  and 
rewarded,  and  where  the  teaching  methods  are  constantly 
being  improved.  Here  and  there  we  find  evidences  of  at- 
tempts to  find  the  best  methods,  and  of  new  experiments  in 
education  whose  results  are  very  promising,  for  example,  Pro- 
fessor Franklin's  improvement  at  Lehigh  in  the  method  of 
teaching  laboratory  physics;  the  examination  of  the  English 
teaching  in  different  technical  schools  by  Professor  Earle,  of 
Tufts  College;  the  introduction  of  the  preceptorial  system  at 
Princeton;  Professor  Schneider's  cooperative  system  in  Cin- 
cinnati ;  the  university  extension  work  at  Wisconsin ;  the  in- 
vestigation by  a  committee  of  the  Society  of  American  Bac- 
teriologists of  the  teaching  of  microbiology ;  and  Dr.  Eumely  's 
experimental  preparatory  school  at  Interlaken,  Ind. 

Mr.  Harrington  Emerson  has  written  a  book  entitled  "The 
Twelve  Principles  of  Efficiency."  He  wrote  it  with  especial 
reference  to  the  efficiency  of  manufacturing  establishments, 
but  the  principles  may  be  applied  to  educational  institutions. 
They  are  the  following :  (1)  Clearly  defined  ideals.  (2)  Com- 
mon sense.  (3)  Competent  counsel.  (4)  Discipline.  (5)  The 
fair  deal.  (6)  Reliable,  immediate  and  exact  records.  (7) 
Despatching.  (8)  Standards  and  schedules.  (9)  Standard- 
ized conditions.  (10)  Standardized  operations.  (11)  Writ- 
ten standard  practice  instructions.  (12)  Efficiency  reward. 
The  investigating  committee  might  use  this  list  of  twelve  prin- 
ciples of  efficiency  in  its  examination  of  the  colleges  and  find 
to  what  extent  they  are  in  operation. 

Suppose  that  the  Carnegie  Foundation  were  to  have  an  in- 
vestigation made  such  as  is  here  suggested,  what  good  would 
it  do?  The  same  good  that  Mr.  Cooke's  investigation  of  the 


156  ACADEMIC  EFFICIENCY. 

cost  of  the  student-hour  did,  and  something  more.  It  would 
call  public  attention  to  the  subject,  and  might  lead  some  uni- 
versities to  reform  some  of  their  methods.  It  would  reveal 
how  bad  things  are,  which  is  the  first  step  toward  reform. 
The  report  would  be  denounced  as  Mr.  Cooke's  has  been,  by 
college  presidents  and  by  editorial  writers  of  conservative 
ways  of  thinking,  as  utterly  subversive  of  all  the  ancient  edu- 
cational ideals,  and  involving  "a  gross  and  fundamental 
error. ' '  But  it  would  set  men  thinking.  It  would  show  them 
that  some  universities  and  colleges  and  some  educational 
methods  are  better  than  others,  and  give  the  public  some 
knowledge  which  would  enable  them  to  select  the  best  colleges, 
and  some  educators  of  a  progressive  turn  of  mind  the  infor- 
mation they  are  looking  for  in  regard  to  methods. 

The  best  possible  result  of  such  a  report,  however,  might  be 
that  it  might  induce  some  multi-millionaire  to  think  that  he 
had  a  duty  to  perform  in  helping  to  improve  the  efficiency  of 
educational  methods,  by  contributing  the  funds  that  would 
be  required  to  carry  on  an  educational  experiment  similar  in 
extent  to  the  experiments  carried  on  by  Mr.  F.  W.  Taylor  in 
the  Midvale  and  Bethlehem  Steel  Works.  It  required  more 
than  twenty  years  of  labor  and  the  expenditure  of  some  hun- 
dreds of  thousands  of  dollars  to  carry  on  his  experiments  on 
tool  steel,  which  have  revolutionized  machine-shop  practice, 
and  on  scientific  management,  which  bids  fair  to  cause  a  far 
more  important  revolution  in  all  our  industrial  systems.  Mr. 
Taylor's  system  of  management  cannot  be  adopted  without 
many  modifications  by  an  educational  institution,  but  his 
system  of  experimentation  can  be.  It  is  simply  the  careful 
collection  of  all  the  facts  by  an  expert,  their  study  by  mathe- 
matical methods,  the  making  of  experiments  to  get  more  facts, 
their  further  study,  and  careful  reasoning  to  arrive  at  cor- 
rect conclusions.  It  takes  years  of  time,  thousands  of  dollars 
of  money,  and  can  only  be  undertaken,  with  any  probability 
of  reaching  valuable  results,  by  a  scientific  expert  who  is  en- 
tirely unhampered  by  old  traditions.  The  motto  of  the  con- 
servative is  ' '  whatever  is,  is  right, ' '  that  of  the  scientific  expert 


WILLIAM  KENT.  157 

is,  ' '  whatever  is,  is  apt  to  be  wrong ;  I  am  going  to  test  it  and 
find  out  whether  it  is  right  or  wrong. ' ' 

Here  is  the  outline  of  an  educational  experiment  to  take 
ten  years  of  time  and  cost  half  a  million  of  dollars — less  money 
by  the  way  than  one  second-class  university  has  spent  on  its 
equipment  for  athletics  within  a  few  years,  and  less  than  has 
been  paid  by  some  millionaires  for  a  couple  of  paintings. 

Appoint  a  commission  of  five  well  educated  men  who  are 
not  connected  with  any  educational  institution,  say  a  minister, 
a  doctor,  a  farmer,  a  merchant  and  an  engineer,  to  secure  a 
wide  diversity  in  points  of  view.  Pay  them  $5,000  a  year 
each  for  the  first  year,  and  a  smaller  sum  in  succeeding  years, 
when  their  time  will  not  be  fully  occupied,  and  provide  them 
with  an  office,  stenographer  and  clerk,  and  funds  for  traveling 
expenses.  Let  them  spend  a  preliminary  year  in  investigating 
actual  educational  conditions  in  this  country,  collecting  facts, 
statistics  and  expert  opinions,  on  which  they  should  prepare  a 
report.  They  should  also  report  their  opinion  on  what  should 
be  the  course  of  education  of  a  boy  between  the  ages  of  14  and 
16,  if  he  intends  to  go  to  work  in  the  mechanical  trades  or 
in  commerce  at  the  age  of  16,  also  what  should  be  the  course 
from  14  to  18  (1)  if  he  intends  to  go  to  work  at  18,  (2)  if  he 
intends  to  enter  a  general  college,  (3)  if  he  intends  to  enter 
a  technical  school.  The  second  year  the  experiment  is  to  be 
begun.  Select  a  hundred  boys  who  are  ready  to  enter  high 
school,  of  the  majority  of  whom  there  is  a  reasonable  prob- 
ability that  they  will,  if  they  prove  fitted  for  it  at  18,  take  a 
college  course.  Rent  a  preparatory  school,  or  a  portion  of 
one,  and  have  the  boys  taught,  by  selected  teachers,  in  the 
courses  laid  down  by  the  commission.  Provide  enough  tutors 
or  preceptors  to  insure  that  the  education  of  the  boys  is 
properly  supervised  and  that  their  time  is  not  wasted.  Con- 
tinue their  high  school  education,  for  as  many  of  them  as 
stay  in  school,  for  four  years.  During  all  their  time  the  com- 
missioners are  to  be  studying  methods  of  teaching,  and 
methods  of  measuring  the  efficiency  of  teaching,  preparing 
practical  standards  of  examination,  not  merely  to  test  the 
11 


158  ACADEMIC  EFFICIENCY. 

memory  of  the  scholars,  as  in  ordinary  examinations,  but  to 
test  their  mental  and  bodily  powers.  Find  out  not  only  what 
the  boys  know,  as  a  mere  act  of  memory,  but  what  and  how 
they  think,  and  what  they  can  actually  do.  Test  not  only  the 
hundred  boys,  or  as  many  of  them  as  remain,  but  also  boys  in 
other  high  schools,  by  the  same  standards  or  by  other  stand- 
ards that  may  be  proposed  by  the  high  school  teachers.  Cul- 
tivate the  same  spirit  of  emulation  for  success  in  scholarship 
that  now  exists  for  success  in  the  athletic  field,  but  give  them 
also  enough  athletics  and  other  recreation  to  develop  their 
bodies  as  well  as  their  minds.  Train  them  also  in  hygiene,  in 
morals  and  in  manners,  to  make  them  not  only  scholars  but 
gentlemen. 

During  these  four  years  the  commissioners  are  also  studying 
college  administration,  courses,  methods  of  teaching,  and  effi- 
ciency, and  determining  standards  of  measurement  of  effi- 
ciency. When  the  boys  are  through  their  preparatory  course 
of  four  years,  send  them  to  such  colleges  as  have  been  selected 
for  them,  have  them  take  the  courses  for  which  they  are  fitted, 
provide  tutors  for  them,  and  watch  their  progress  through 
the  college,  testing  them  by  predetermined  standards  in  com- 
parison with  other  college  students.  At  the  end  of  the  four- 
year  college  courses,  the  commission  is  to  report  on  the  whole 
eight  years'  experiment.  It  will  be  found  that  many  mis- 
takes have  been  made,  but  probably  not  so  many  as  would  be 
made  in  an  ordinary  eight-year  course  of  high  school  and 
college.  The  success  of  the  experiment  is  not  to  be  judged 
by  the  success  of  these  selected  boys,  but  by  the  value  of  the 
information  obtained  and  reported  on  by  the  commissioners 
as  to  the  various  methods  of  teaching  and  of  college  adminis- 
tration and  by  the  acquirement  of  standards  by  which  aca- 
demic efficiency  may  be  measured  in  the  future. 

During  the  whole  of  the  eight  years'  experiment  the  boys 
should  be  required  to  keep  a  diary  in  which  they  record  what 
seem  to  be  the  most  important  items  concerning  their  educa- 
tion, and  they  should  once  a  year  present  to  the  commissioners 
a  written  report  of  their  progress,  keeping  a  copy  for  their 


WILLIAM  KENT.  159 

own  future  use.  Four  years  after  they  have  graduated  from 
college,  when  their  minds  are  sufficiently  mature,  they  should 
be  asked  to  write  critical  reports  of  their  educational  career 
as  it  then  appears  to  them.  A  study  of  these  reports  by  the 
commission,  which  should  be  continued  in  existence  for  that 
purpose,  would  no  doubt  furnish  fruitful  ideas  for  further 
educational  progress. 

Cecil  Ehodes  did  a  noble  work  in  establishing  the  founda- 
tion of  the  Ehodes  Scholarship  in  Oxford.  Andrew  Carnegie 
has  done  a  grand  work  in  establishing  the  Carnegie  Institute 
for  Scientific  Research  and  for  the  Advancement  of  Teaching. 
Equally  grand  will  be  the  work  of  him  who  shall  establish  a 
foundation  for  the  application  of  the  methods  of  scientific 
management  to  the  improvement  of  academic  efficiency. 

This  proposed  plan  is  merely  a  suggestion.  There  may  be  a 
better  plan,  but  whatever  it  may  be  it  will  take  years  of  hard 
work  and  a  large  sum  of  money  to  accomplish  the  desired 
results.  It  might  be  undertaken  by  the  Carnegie  Foundation 
for  the  Advancement  of  Teaching,  by  the  Russell  Sage 
Foundation,  or  by  the  government,  but  the  funds  of  these 
foundations  are  probably  already  fully  employed,  and  judg- 
ing by  the  past  non-activity  of  the  government  in  educational 
matters  it  might  take  twenty  years  of  agitation  before  Con- 
gress could  be  induced  to  make  the  necessary  appropriation. 
The  government  has  a  department  of  agriculture  which  is 
making  experiments  for  the  farmer,  to  enable  him  to  grow 
larger  and  better  crops,  a  bureau  of  forestry  which  is  trying 
to  conserve  our  forests,  a  bureau  of  mines  which  is  experi- 
menting on  improving  the  methods  of  mining  and  on  the 
prevention  of  accidents.  It  has  also  a  bureau  of  education, 
which  publishes  statistics  of  schools  and  colleges  and  some 
interesting  papers  on  educational  subjects,  but  which  has 
never  investigated  academic  efficiency  or  carried  on  an  edu- 
cational experiment.  All  educational  reforms  in  this  country 
have  been  originated  by  individual  philanthropists  or  by  indi- 
vidual universities.  They  do  not  come  about  by  normal 
process  of  evolution  in  the  educational  world  or  by  govern- 


160  ACADEMIC  EFFICIENCY. 

mental  action,  with  perhaps  a  single  exception,  the  Morrill 
Land  Grant  Act  of  1862,  just  fifty  years  ago.  We  therefore 
must  look  for  a  millionaire  philanthropist  to  begin  the  great 
educational  experiment  which  will  lead  to  improving  the 
methods  of  training  our  future  citizens. 

Our  modern  educational  literature,  addresses  of  college 
presidents  and  school  superintendents,  proceedings  of  socie- 
ties, etc.,  all  show  the  prevailing  consensus  of  opinion  that 
there  is  something  seriously  wrong  with  our  whole  educational 
system,  and  that  instead  of  getting  better  it  is  constantly 
tending  to  grow  worse.  There  exists  also  a  great  amount  of 
ultra-conservatism  and  of  mental  inertia  relating  to  the  sub- 
ject. It  is  high  time  that  something  practical  be  done  in  the 
way  of  reform. 


OPERATING  ENGINEERING  SCHOOLS  UNDER 
SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT. 

BY  H.  WADE  HIBBAED, 
Professor  of  Mechanical  Engineering,  University  of  Missouri. 

Privileged  by  an  assignment  from  Chairman  Gilbreth  of 
this  meeting  on  academic  efficiency  to  present  an  opinion  upon 
operating  engineering  schools  under  scientific  management, 
the  writer  will  attempt  to  suggest  an  analysis  such  as  might 
be  made  by  an  efficiency  engineer  employed  to  investigate  an 
industrial  business. 

A  teacher  who  has  had  any  experience  in  the  improvement  of 
industrial  efficiency  must  be  keenly  conscious  of  the  special 
difficulties  of  this  problem.  The  mere  statement  that  the  raw 
material  is  an  unstandardized  boy  and  the  product  is  an 
improved  man  even  less  standardized,  instead  of  pig  iron  and 
a  turret  lathe,  should  hint  at  one  unsurmountable  difficulty. 
Mr.  Pritchett's  introduction  to  Engineer  Cooke's  report  to 
the  Carnegie  Foundation  for  the  Advancement  of  Teaching 
recognizes  that  "scholarly  and  spiritual  leadership  is  the 
highest  quality  of  college  efficiency  and  the  one  most  neces- 
sary to  attain."  The  total  absence  as  yet  of  any  unit  for 
measuring  the  efficiency  of  men  engaged  in  teaching  and 
research  increases  the  difficulty.  The  writer,  in  a  recent  dis- 
cussion with  President  Hill,  of  the  University  of  Missouri, 
must  agree  with  him  that  "the  best  way  to  be  conceived  for 
killing  the  entire  spirit  of  research  would  be  to  attempt  to 
estimate  a  man's  value  in  terms  of  the  quantity  of  his  output. 
It  would  tend  to  make  still  more  mechanical  the  work  of  men 
who  ought  not  to  be  mechanical  at  all,  for  teaching  and 
research  are  matters  that  cannot  be  reduced  to  mechanism." 

Scientific  management  of  shops  finds  a  large  field  in  trans- 
ferring to  the  more  intelligent  managers  most  of  the  brain 

161 


162  SCHOOLS   UNDER   SCIENTIFIC    MANAGEMENT. 

work  which  was  but  indifferently  performed  by  the  far  less 
mentally  capable  individual  operatives.  The  college  differ- 
ence is  obvious. 

To  enumerate  all  the  differences  is  a  function  of  the  destruc- 
tive critic,  the  doubter  and  the  pessimist.  The  constructive 
mind,  overlooking  none  of  the  difficulties,  but  giving  careful 
consideration  to  all,  would  better  attempt  to  discover  the  many 
applications  of  the  principles  of  scientific  management  to 
engineering  schools.  To  the  efficiency  engineer,  introducing 
scientific  management  in  the  industries,  nothing  is  more  com- 
mon than  to  hear  an  owner  say  that  his  plant  stands  alone  for 
its  problems,  or  that  a  department  presents  peculiar  diffi- 
culties which  must  exempt  it  from  the  proposed  line  of 
improvements. 

Hopeful  indications  are  that  engineering  teachers  to  a  man 
are  desirous  of  adopting  those  innovations  which  probably 
will  be  improvements ;  that  some  of  the  most  surprising  results 
of  scientific  management  have  appeared  in  the  very  offices  of 
the  managers;  that  everywhere  the  industries  are  recognizing 
the  necessity  of  bringing  the  human  side  of  production  up  to 
the  high  degree  of  excellence  already  attained  by  the  machin- 
ery side;  that  the  preceding  has  its  counterpart  in  the  new 
courses  given  to  engineering  students  upon  the  principles  of 
man-management  or  scientific  discipline;  and  that  the  indus- 
trial world  is  coming  more  and  more  to  feel  that  all  work  is 
done  under  certain  broad  principles,  whose  application  to  one 
industry  is  very  little  different  from  the  application  to  any 
other. 

Colleges  are  not  dreading  change,  but  the  strife  by  which 
some  seek  to  bring  it  about.  College  professors  may  well 
scrutinize  changes  advocated  by  business  men,  lest  they  be 
without  sufficient  respect  for  the  verdict  of  time.  Ordinary 
business  thinks  in  short  cycles,  without  much  regard  to  what 
follows;  a  university  is  not  a  weather  vane,  but  stands  for 
what  has  proved  wise  progress  through  the  years.  Engineer- 
ing professors  have  always  sought  to  profit  by  suggestions 
from  the  outside  world,  are  most  frequently  recruited  from 


H.    WADE    HIBBABD.  163 

that  world,  often  return  to  it  for  a  summer  or  longer,  and 
believe  heartily  that  only  good  can  come  to  an  organization 
when  a  friendly  hand  turns  the  public's  searchlight  upon  its 
resources,  aims  and  methods.  That  the  hand  is  non-academic 
is  well,  for  in  every  line  of  work  the  outsider  may  see  con- 
spicuously the  wastes  to  which  slow  growth  or  long  custom 
have  blinded  the  eyes  of  the  insider. 

Management  is  the  science  and  art  of  accomplishing  a  given 
end  with  economy  of  means.  A  science  is  a  systematic  and 
orderly  arrangement  of  special  knowledge ;  an  art  is  the  actual 
performance  of  something.  The  art  is  the  doing;  the  science 
is  the  knowing  why  and  how.  If  "man's  greatest  study  is  the 
study  of  man,"  then  the  education  of  an  engineering  student 
is  subject  matter  for  the  application  of  management  of  the 
highest  type. 

The  philosophy  of  management  is  having  as  many  defini- 
tions today  as  the  term  philosophy  itself.  Though  philosophy 
is  the  most  ancient  of  sciences,  yet  Webster  gives  it  at  least 
twelve  definitions.  It  reminds  one  of  the  many  definitions  of 
the  second  law  of  thermodynamics.  Taylor,  who  for  thirty 
years  has  been  led  by  the  scientific  spirit  of  inquiry  to  investi- 
gate management  of  men,  calls  scientific  management  a  cer- 
tain combination  of  elements  which  have  existed  in  the  past, 
namely,  old  knowledge  so  collected,  analyzed,  grouped,  and 
classified  into  laws  and  rules  that  it  constitutes  a  science, 
accompanied  by  a  complete  change  in  the  mental  attitude  of 
the  working-man  as  well  as  of  the  manager,  toward  each  other, 
and  toward  their  respective  duties  and  responsibilities ;  also  a 
new  division  of  the  duties  between  the  two  sides,  and  intimate, 
friendly  cooperation  to  an  extent  that  is  impossible  under  the 
philosophy  of  the  old  management.  The  managers  assume  the 
burden  of  gathering  all  the  traditional  knowledge  which  in  the 
past  has  been  possessed  by  the  workmen,  and  then  of  classi- 
fying, tabulating  and  reducing  this  knowledge  to  rules,  laws 
and  formulas. 

Taylor  further  summarizes  this  whole  combination  as 
follows : 


164          SCHOOLS   TJNDEK   SCIENTIFIC    MANAGEMENT. 

1.  Science,  not  rule  of  thumb. 

2.  Harmony,  not  discord. 

3.  Cooperation,  not  individualism. 

4.  Maximum  output,  in  place  of  restricted  output. 

5.  The  development  of  each  man  to  his  greatest  efficiency 
and  prosperity. 

The  efficiency  engineer  has  two  lines  of  work,  the  analytical 
and  the  synthetic  or  creative.  The  first  furnishes  reliable  and 
intimate  knowledge  of  affairs  as  they  are.  It  is  always  a 
delight  to  see  the  appearance  of  hidden  matters  as  the  result 
of  minute  analysis.  Nothing  is  too  small  or  too  broad  for 
investigation,  the  microscope  or  the  telescope  being  used  as 
needed. 

The  second  line,  based  upon  the  first,  creates  the  improve- 
ments. Some  of  the  creative  may  accompany  the  analysis 
from  the  first,  but  the  far-reaching  improvements  obviously 
come  later. 

A  quotation  from  C.  B.  Going  may  conduce  to  a  better 
appreciation  of  the  service  of  the  efficiency  expert  to  the 
school  of  engineering.  Going  says,  "He  deals  with  ma- 
chinery; but  not  so  much  with  its  design,  construction  or 
abstract  economy,  as  with  selection,  arrangement,  installa- 
tion, operation  and  maintenance,  and  the  influence  which  each 
of  these  points  or  all  together  may  exert  upon  the  total  cost 
of  the  output." 

"He  deals  with  materials;  but  not  so  much  with  their 
mechanical  and  physical  constants,  which  are  strictly  tech- 
nical considerations,  as  with  their  proper  selection,  their 
standardization,  custody,  transportation  and  manipulation." 

' '  He  deals  very  largely  with  methods ;  but  the  methods  with 
which  he  is  particularly  concerned  are  methods  of  performing 
work,  of  securing  high  efficiency  in  machinery  and  men,  of 
handling  materials  and  cost  per  unit  handled,  of  keeping 
track  of  work-in-progress  and  graphing  the  situation  so  that 
the  manager  may  have  an  instant  controlling  view  of  all,  of 
recording  times  and  costs  so  that  the  efficiency  of  the  per- 
formance may  be  compared  with  predetermined  standards,  of 


H.    WADE    HIBBAED.  165 

detecting  causes  of  low  efficiency  or  poor  economy  and  apply- 
ing the  necessary  remedies.'7 

"He  deals  with  management,  that  is,  with  the  executive 
direction  of  the  whole  organization." 

"He  deals  with  men  themselves  and  with  those  psycholog- 
ical influences  which  concern  their  thoughts,  purposes  and 
emotions,  and  stimulate  their  ambition,  enlist  their  coopera- 
tion and  insure  their  most  effective  work. ' ' 

"He  deals  with  markets,  with  the  economic  laws  affecting 
them  and  the  mode  of  creating,  enlarging  and  controlling 
them." 

It  may  be  suggested  that  the  following  phases  of  scientific 
management  are  applicable  to  the  operation  of  an  engineering 
school.  This  paper  is  not  offered  as  the  final  solution,  but  as 
a  modest  feeling  towards  the  possible  end.  It  is  in  part  based 
upon  our  two  years  of  experience  in  teaching  scientific  shop 
management  to  senior  mechanicals  at  the  University  of 
Missouri,  upon  which  a  paper  was  read  to  this  Society  one 
year  ago. 

Scientific  management  requires : 

I.  A  complete  analysis  and  criticism  of  the  organization, 
with  graphic  representation,  showing  lines  of  responsibility, 
with  extent  and  limitations  of  duties. 

II.  Analysis  of  the  financial  administration. 

III.  Analysis  of  the  equipment,  including  buildings. 

IV.  Every  act  of  man  and  machine  to  be  investigated,  and 
by  minute  scientific  analysis  its  elements  determined  and  its 
laws  found. 

-  V.  Decision  as  to  how  each  act  can  best  be  done,  together 
with  the 

VI.  Selection  of  men  fitted  to  do  the  work. 

VII.  Training  of  men  so  selected  to  do  the  work  in  the  way 
determined  to  be  the  best,  each  man  being  developed  to  his 
greatest  efficiency  and  prosperity. 

VIII.  By  adequate  supervision  and  proper  incentive,  ensure 
that  the  men  practice  the  best  methods  all  the  time,  securing 
and  continuing  maximum  output. 


166  SCHOOLS   UNDEB   SCIENTIFIC   MANAGEMENT. 

IX.  Team-work,  without  hampering  a  wise  individualism. 

X.  Cooperation  between  managers  and  men. 

XI.  Building  up  of  an  advisory  cabinet  or  staff,  if  the 
Emerson  idea  seems  preferable  and  the  old  line  officers  are 
retained ;  or  organizing  functional  foremanship,  if  the  Taylor 
idea  seems  preferable. 

XII.  Delimiting  the  respective  duties  of  officers  and  cabinet, 
or  manager  and  functional  foremen. 

The  above  work  seems  vast  and  is  vast.  In  the  introduction 
of  scientific  management  at  a  New  England  paper  mill,  1,500 
time  studies  were  taken  in  the  first  three  months  and  there 
were  18,000  time  studies  in  one  schedule  report.  A  great 
national  corporation  having  22  plants  and  300  miles  of  rail- 
way approached  an  efficiency  engineer  with  a  proposition  to 
undertake  the  introduction  of  scientific  management  to  be 
completed  in  fifteen  years. 

But  in  the  engineering  school  as  in  the  industrial  plant, 
improvement  ought  to  become  apparent  early  in  the  applica- 
tion of  a  part  of  the  above  twelve  requirements.  In  the 
paper  mill,  though  six  months  were  spent  in  the  time  study 
of  the  calender  department,  within  three  days  the  efficiency 
of  the  calendar  machines  was  raised  from  64  per  cent,  to 
72  per  cent.  Emerson  wants  to  show  savings  very  soon  after 
starting  work  in  a  plant.  Shop  efficiency  can  be  raised  from 
60  per  cent,  to  90  per  cent,  without  any  personal  incentive 
such  as  bonus  payments,  simply  by  making  things  ' '  right ' '  in 
standard  or  ideal  materials,  equipment  and  methods.  Emer- 
son outlines  a  dozen  principles  of  efficiency,  and  only  one  is 
efficiency  reward.  If  organized  labor  objects  to  the  bonus 
system,  an  efficiency  engineer  may  attain  almost  his  entire 
improvement  without  introducing  the  reward.  In  the  engi- 
neering school,  only  so  much  or  so  little,  and  at  different  speeds, 
of  the  above  twelve  requirements  may  be  introduced  as  is 
deemed  advisable. 

How  may  the  twelve  requirements  of  this  paper  be  applied 
to  the  university  ? 


H.    WADE    HIBBABD.  167 

I.  In  making  the  analysis  and  criticism  of  the  organization, 
beware  of  advocating  a  panacea  or  specific  for  all  ills.  Prin- 
ciples and  ideals  must  constantly  be  kept  prominent,  while 
"  systems "  must  vary  with  the  conditions. 

The  form  of  organization  of  universities  appears  to  be  what 
is  known  to  the  efficiency  engineer  as  ' '  line ' '  or  unf  unctional- 
ized  control,  whether  it  be  one-man  power  or  committee  power, 
and  with  many  combinations.  Sometimes  the  centralized 
control  is  on  paper  only,  each  different  college  and  even  a 
large  department  as  physics  being  autonomous  in  control  of 
its  affairs,  buildings,  discipline,  work  of  its  faculty  and 
curriculum. 

The  one-man  power  burdens  the  man  with  too  many  func- 
tions; committee  control  means  compromises,  and  they  leave 
business  in  such  shape  that  it  must  be  thrashed  over  again  and 
often  reversed;  and  departmental  autonomy  prevents  solidar- 
ity of  the  university  and  cooperation  between  departments 
and  allows  abuses  to  continue. 

To  quote  from  Cooke.  "The  first  great  object  of  organiza- 
tion is  to  make  each  individual  count  for  his  maximum.  Hence 
he  must  do  those  things  for  which  he  is  best  suited.  Almost 
invariably  under  committee  management  is  seen  the  spectacle 
of  several  men,  experts  in  their  own  specialties,  all  simulta- 
neously wasting  precious  time  in  deciding  questions  outside 
their  own  field,  which  could  be  better  and  far  more  quickly 
decided  by  a  single  expert,  whose  time  may  be  worth  less  than 
that  of  any  one  of  the  committeemen.  Modern  industrial 
management  seeks  to  relieve  the  head  men  of  all  possible 
routine,  such  as  is  the  bulk  of  committee  work,  and  so  enables 
them  to  give  their  entire  time  to  progress.  At  the  same  time, 
these  heads  are  kept  constantly  informed,  through  carefully 
prepared  and  summarized  *  exception'  reports,  as  to  all  unusual 
matters  of  vital  import. 

"One-man  and  committee  management  should  be  replaced 
by  functional  or  staff  management,  where  the  effort  is  made 
constantly  to  have  each  man  perform  those  functions  which 
he  is  best  fitted  to  perform,  and  to  prohibit  him  from  inter- 


168  SCHOOLS   UNDEE   SCIENTIFIC   MANAGEMENT. 

fering  in  the  performance  of  those  functions  about  which  he 
is  not  specially  qualified  to  give  an  opinion.  A  man  is  thereby 
safeguarded  in  the  performance  of  the  highest  kind  of  work 
he  is  competent  to  perform. ' ' 

Starting  with  the  board  of  trustees,  it  should  determine  the 
broad  and  general  policies  for  the  university,  and  leave  the 
president  alone  in  his  executive  function.  "The  world's 
experience  has  demonstrated  the  utter  impracticability  of 
doing  executive  work  under  the  management  of  more  than  one 
man.  Even  in  a  partnership,  one  man  will  have  absolute 
charge  of  production  and  another  of  finances  and  sales. 

"Applied  to  the  college,  the  work  would  be  divided  into  25 
or  50  functions,  in  each  of  which  some  one  person  will  be 
supreme,  under  the  determined  standards  controlling  him. 
This  is  quite  different  from  50  positions,  the  occupant  of 
each  having  many  functions  to  perform."  The  successful 
teacher  or  administrator  will  become  known  and  hence  valued, 
because  his  ability  is  as  functionalized  and  definite  as  that 
of  the  research  worker.  A  professor  will  gladly  be  relieved 
when  a  central  agency  or  functioner  is  found  to  do  certain 
work  better  than  he.  If  a  man  feels  weak  in  one  function 
which  he  has  to  perform  because  of  overlapping  of  duties,  he 
can  secure  help  from  a  specialist  in  that  function.  A  profes- 
sor will  commonly  be  directed  by  several  functional  guides, 
but  he  in  turn  will  not  be  upset  by  those  who  are  almost  ignor- 
ant of  his  work  or  duties. 

I  have  listed  209  different  activities  of  a  professor.  The 
high-priced  presidents  of  great  corporations  would  not  dream 
of  attempting  to  perform  such  a  variety  of  functions.  For 
present  purposes,  only  84  of  these  will  be  mentioned.  The 
time  available  for  the  preparation  of  this  paper  has  not  per- 
mitted a  careful  analysis  and  grouping,  consequently  it  is  not 
made  clear  which  duties  are  sufficiently  related  to  be  grouped 
under  one  functioner. 

A  professor 's  activities  cover : 

Teaching  in  Kecitation 

Lecture  Laboratory 


H.    WADE   HIBBABD. 


169 


Drafting 

Computation 

Field  work 

Seminary 

Examinations  on  his  own  work 
Class  discipline 
Friendship  with  students 
Breadth  of  culture 

for  professor,  and 

its  encouragement  for  student 
Kesearch 

for  professor 

for  students 

Methods  of  student  study 
Student  engineering  society 
Inspection  tours 
Foreign  lecturers 
Summer  positions 
Graduate  positions 
Alumni  list 

Employment  bureau  for  alumni 
Registration 
Issuing  stores 
Issuing  apparatus 
Laboratory  deposits 
Control  of  student  activities 
City  moral  cleanliness 
New  apparatus 

Needs 

Choice 

Markets 

Installation 
Regular  supplies 
Repairs 
Repair  shop 
Inventory 
Deterioration 

Out-of-dateness 
New  library  books 
Use  of  library 
Catalog  library 
High  school 

Standards 

Curricula 
Engineering  curricula 


and  progress 

Other  engineering  schools 
Relations  with  the  profession 
College  catalog 

College  and  department  circulars 
Engineering  experiment  station 
Engineering  bulletins 
University  extension 

by  correspondence 

by  centers 
Summer  school 

Advertising  and  public  sentiment 
Student  grades 
Grading  methods 
Electives  for  engineers 
Schedules  for  classes 
Use  of  rooms 
Lighting  plans 
Supervision  of  teaching 
Improvement  of  teachers 
Employment  of  new  teachers 

Acquaintance     with     foreign 

teachers 

Pedagogical  progress 
Work  in  engineering  professional 

societies 

Work  in  this  Society 
Writing 
Problems  of 

Buildings 

Grounds 

Janitors 

Power  house  management 
Problems  of 

Heating 

Lighting 

Water  service 
Fire 

Prevention 

Extinguishment 
Bookkeeping 
Appropriations 
Personal  typewriting 
Hektographing 
Lantern  operation 


170  SCHOOLS   UNDER   SCIENTIFIC    MANAGEMENT. 

The  above  are  too  many  duties  to  make  it  probable  that  com- 
plete functioning  can  be  applied.  In  a  small  industrial  plant, 
one  man  may  be  given  four  fairly  related  functions — as  a 
maximum.  Such  a  man  sharply  defines  his  duties  in  each 
function,  and  he  works  for  the  time  being  as  that  one  func- 
tional foreman.  Then  later  on  he  works  as  another  functional 
foreman.  Much  of  the  above  professor's  work  can  be  grouped 
and  functional  men  used.  What  cannot,  might  be  left  intact, 
and  an  expert  staff  assembled  to  guide  it.  Such  changes 
should  be  slow,  organizing  first  those  functional  activities 
which  can  be  well  done.  It  is  generally  best  not  to  compel 
everybody  to  use  a  given  functional  agency  when  it  is  first 
started.  "A  purchasing  agent,  on  assuming  his  duties,  will 
find  his  time  fully  occupied  in  buying  for  those  who  are 
anxious  to  utilize  his  services.  It  is  of  importance  that  those 
who  first  come  in  contact  shall  be  impressed  with  the  efficiency 
and  genuine  helpfulness. ' '  Though  professors  are  more  intel- 
ligent than  workmen  and  gang  bosses,  yet  human  nature  is 
much  the  same  everywhere. 

II.  Analysis  of  the  financial  administration. 

The  several  colleges  in  a  university,  and  the  several  teaching 
or  research  departments  in  the  colleges,  correspond  to  the 
several  plants  and  manufacturing  departments  of  a  corpora- 
tion. To  each  college  and  department  should  be  charged  its 
direct  expense  and  share  of  "burden,"  "overhead"  or  gen- 
eral expense.  The  sum  of  these  charges  should  cover  the 
entire  expenditures  of  the  university.  In  this  way  only  is  it 
possible  to  know  how  costly  is  a  college  or  department,  in 
comparison  with  the  work  which  it  is  doing.  There  is  here 
not  the  least  intimation  that  a  very  costly  small  department 
should  be  the  one  first  discontinued.  There  may  be  many  and 
overwhelming  reasons  why  it  should  be  retained.  But  it  is 
right  that  the  trustees  should  know  the  facts,  and  then  act 
without  ignorance. 

The  above  carries  the  idea,  of  course,  that  when  an  annual 
appropriation  is  made  to  a  department,  based  upon  a  pre- 


H.    WADE    HIBBAKD.  171 

viously  prepared  budget,  every  payment  authorized  by  the 
department  should  be  paid  out  of  the  department's  fund. 
This  puts  emphasis  for  economical  buying  upon  the  teachers 
of  the  department. 

Conversely,  every  department  must  be  credited  with  its 
earnings. 

Not  a  dollar  should  be  spent  without  its  passing  through  the 
university  treasurer. 

There  should  be  printed  and  full  and  minute  publicity 
given  to  all  receipts  and  expenditures. 

Careful  distinction  should  be  had  between  repairs  and  re- 
placements versus  new  equipment. 

The  accounting  department  has  three  functions:  auditing 
expenditures  and  vouchers,  the  up-to-the-day  state  of  the 
business,  costs  as  related  to  the  most  practicable  and  illumi- 
nating units.  Where  there  is  doubt  as  to  the  conditions  or 
reasons  for  affairs,  then  accounting  subdivides  the  financial 
data  into  the  smallest  units,  for  minute  study,  grouping  as 
needed. 

The  results  for  study  are  put  into  graphical  form  for  easy 
comparison,  and  into  curves  to  show  progress  or  retrogression. 
A  graphical  picture  of  statistics  appeals  simply  and  effectively 
to  the  eye,  and  thus  carries  its  meaning  instantly  to  the  mind. 

The  eye  is  readier  than  the  mind  to  read  and  compare  dif- 
ferences in  size  or  shape  or  slant.  Columns  of  figures  do  not 
show  differences  so  emphatically. 

An  official  with  many  duties  must  economize  his  time  by 
the  use  of  graphical  reports. 

The  higher  the  official,  the  more  should  his  work  lie  in 
determining  policies,  leaving  details  and  routine  for  his  well- 
chosen  subordinates  to  do.  Curves  show  him  tendencies  and 
desirabilities,  and  enable  him  to  choose  policies. 

Statistics,  if  plotted  into  curves,  very  early  indicate  tend- 
encies. If  these  are  objectionable,  they  can  be  corrected  long 
before  they  would  have  become  noticeable  in  columns  of 
figures. 

Everything  has  a  cause.     Often  the  cause  is  well  hidden. 


172  SCHOOLS   UNDEB   SCIENTIFIC    MANAGEMENT. 

Until  recent  years,  the  cause  was  unknown  of  yellow  and 
chagres  fevers.  The  Panama  canal  is  being  built,  not  by  engi- 
neers, but  by  the  investigators  of  infected  mosquitoes.  The 
writer  respectfully  wonders  why  Mr.  Cooke  did  not  turn  this 
graphics  light  upon  the  causes  of  statistics  so  faithfully 
gathered  for  his  report  to  the  Carnegie  Foundation  for  the 
Advancement  of  Teaching. 

Changes,  improvements,  extensions  and  added  facilities 
show  their  relative  values  by  their  several  inclinations  in  the 
curves  affected. 

Plotted  information  tends  to  prevent  erratic  expenditures 
and  to  insure  steady  improvement. 

For  the  purchasing  agent,  the  plotting  of  manufacturers' 
price  lists  often  reveals  irregularities.  These  are  due  some- 
times to  erratic  loading  of  "burden/'  or  to  errors  in  cost 
keeping,  or  to  local  difficulties  in  workmanship  when  sizes  pass 
a  critical  point.  Such  knowledge  of  price  lists  puts  the  pur- 
chasing agent  in  a  more  commanding  position,  from  several 
points  of  view.  He  may  even  change  an  order,  after  of  course 
consulting  with  the  department  issuing  the  requisition,  for  a 
size  or  make  fully  acceptable  to  the  department. 

Diagrams  often  catch  the  small  things  which  run  up  the 
cost  to  departments,  they  prevent  slackness  and  waste,  and 
have  been  known  even  to  catch  theft. 

Much  use  has  been  made  of  curves  plotted  with  years  as 
abscissae,  to  prophesy  the  future  and  determine  thus  the  finan- 
cial requirements.  Three  years  ago  the  New  York  Central 
Lines  saved  the  expenditure  of  an  already  appropriated  two 
million  dollars  by  such  a  graphical  prophesy. 

When  two  curves  of  cause  and  effect  are  to  be  plotted,  if  the 
respective  magnitudes  of  the  units  are  extremely  different,  the 
plotting  should  be  done  upon  cross  section  paper  printed  to 
the  logarithmic  scale,  as  explained  in  Railway  Age  Gazette 
for  June  25,  1909.  The  plotting  is  just  as  simple  as  on  ordi- 
nary paper,  but  tells  the  eye  the  facts  much  better. 

As  regards  a  purchasing  department,  the  university  is  very 
different  from  the  industrial  world.  This  ought  to  be  cor- 


H.    WADE   HIBBAED.  173 

rected  at  once.  A  railroad  buys  a  far  more  varied  line  of  sup- 
plies than  a  university.  The  writer  speaks  from  knowledge, 
for  he  has  been  a  railway  mechanical  engineer  in  close  contact 
with  railway  storekeeping.  But  just  as  in  the  railway,  so  the 
expert  services  of  the  professors  will  be  used  in  buying  things. 
The  professor  needs  not  to  burden  himself  with  the  purchase 
of  standard  articles,  in  order  to  retain  control  of  the  purchase 
of  a  prism  on  which  he  is  an  expert. 

The  new  purchasing  agent  will  easily  show  great  savings, 
by  his  larger  quantities,  by  buying  on  a  low  market,  by  taking 
the  discounts  in  quick  payment  of  invoices,  and  in  short  by 
being  an  expert  in  his  function.  To  quote  briefly  from  sev- 
eral excellent  pages  in  Ennis  : 

"The  buyer  must  thoroughly  know  the  markets  which  he 
enters.  The  trade  papers,  conference  with  other  buyers, 
friendly  relations  with  sellers,  personal  search  into  the  history, 
conditions  and  prospects  of  industries  with  which  he  as  a 
buyer  comes  in  contact — all  these  help.  He  is  a  speculator, 
and  he  should  be  at  least  as  well  posted  on  the  market  for 
commodities  in  which  he  speculates  as  is  the  grain  operator 
on  weather  conditions  in  the  Northwest.  If  he  is  far-sighted, 
he  will  see  many  opportunities  for  advantage  by  accumulating 
staple  stocks  at  times  of  low  price.  He  must  then  use  his 
expert  knowledge  to  influence  the  requisitioning  or  storeroom 
departments  to  anticipate  their  requirements/' 

After  all,  the  chief  value  of  the  purchasing  department  is 
not  in  the  money  saving,  but  in  being  able  to  secure  (1)  the 
articles  best  adapted  to  the  purposes,  (2)  an  increase  in  the 
speed  of  delivery,  and  (3)  a  greater  convenience  in  making 
the  purchase. 

A  stores  department  should  be  found  profitable.  Many 
departments  use  the  same  sorts  of  supplies,  and  by  good  reason 
time,  money  and  convenience  should  be  saved. 

III.  Analysis  of  equipment,  including  buildings. 

A  detailed  study  of  the  use  of  buildings,  rooms  and  equip- 
ment will  reveal  many  wastes.  Cooke  's  report  shows  the  brief 
use  of  costly  rooms.  There  are  three  ways  to  improve  on  this. 
12 


174  SCHOOLS   UNDER   SCIENTIFIC   MANAGEMENT. 

1.  Publicity  in  the  use  of  rooms,  including  the  number  of 
students  accommodated. 

2.  A  schedule  of  hours  and  rooms  arranged  by  a  function- 
alized  officer  each  spring  for  the  next  year.    This  may  be  the 
duty  of  the  registrar. 

3.  A  rental  price  to  be  placed  upon  each  room,  and  the  rent 
to  be  paid  by  the  departments  using  them.     Conversely,  when 
a  building  is  given  to  a  department  by  a  special  donor,  the 
department  may  legitimately  be  paid  rent  by  another  depart- 
ment needing  to  use  some  of  the  rooms. 

Occasionally  a  room  may  be  used  more  continuously,  hence 
more  efficiently,  by  having  an  ante-room  with  rolling  tables 
upon  which  lecture  exhibits  may  be  kept  and  then  rolled  out 
into  the  lecture  room  when  needed. 

Rooms  used  by  the  larger  number  of  students  should  be  on 
the  ground  floor. 

Avoid  the  many  useless  store  rooms,  where  junk  accumu- 
lates. Keep  junk  cleaned  out  and  sold  or  thrown  away. 

All  rooms  and  equipment  should  be  kept  neat,  for  the  good 
of  the  students. 

An  excellent  plan  is  in  operation  at  the  University  of  Mis- 
souri, whereby  junior  and  senior  drafting  rooms  are  put  to 
extended  use  when  no  classes  are  scheduled.  Each  student 
has  a  desk  and  locked  drawer.  The  room  is  kept  locked,  but 
each  student  has  a  key.  These  rooms  thus  become  the  "engi- 
neering offices"  of  the  students.  There  they  naturally  meet 
after  a  lecture  and  discuss  the  subject,  they  make  their  labora- 
tory and  other  problem  computations,  a  teacher  drops  in  in- 
formally, the  rooms  adjoin  the  "students  welcomed"  engi- 
neering library.  One  student  is  foreman  in  charge  and 
responsible  for  order.  Breakages,  lost  keys  and  missing  lights 
are  paid  for  out  of  the  students  *  laboratory  deposits.  The 
Student  Branch  of  the  Am.  Soc.  of  Mech.  Engrs.,  after  its 
twice-a-month  engineering  meeting  in  a  lecture  room,  adjourns 
to  the  senior  or  junior  mechanical  drafting  rooms  for  a  light 
"feed"  and  social  hour. 


H.    WADE    HIBBAED.  175 

Ventilation  is  vital  to  efficiency,  and  in  design  or  use  of 
rooms  should  never  be  overlooked. 

Buildings  should  be  planned  for  right  enlargement  accord- 
ing to  a  pre-conceived  plan. 

Equipment  and  appliances  of  every  sort  must  be  inspected 
to  determine  whether  of  best  available  and  in  the  best  condi- 
tion for  use.  If  not  in  use,  the  sentiment  that  defers  disposal, 
lest  they  might  possibly  come  into  use  some  day,  should  be 
sternly  repressed.  Sell  or  throw  away  the  obsolete  junk,  for 
it  is  in  the  way  and  has  to  be  kept  clean. 

IV.  Every  act  of  man  and  machine  to  be  investigated,  and 
by  minute  scientific  analysis  its  elements  determined  and  its 
laws  found. 

This  means  that  the  acts  of  the  professor,  as  partially  out- 
lined in  section  I  of  this  paper,  and  all  the  acts  of  the  student, 
are  to  be  subjected  to  the  Motion  Study  of  Gilbreth's  book, 
modified  to  suit  academic  conditions.  The  engineering  schools 
should  cooperate  in  this  work,  parcelling  out  different  por- 
tions to  different  schools.  The  benefits  will  begin  soon  after 
the  research  begins.  An  outline  for  some  of  this  work  has 
been  made,  but  this  paper  is  already  getting  too  long. 

The  work  will  be  vast,  but  it  should  not  be  felt  as  stunning. 
The  Watertown  Arsenal  in  Boston,  though  one  of  the  most 
thoroughly  ' '  efficiencyized, ' '  has  not  yet  put  in  many  improve- 
ments clearly  needed  there  and  in  use  elsewhere. 

V.  Decision  as  to  how  each  act  can  best  be  done. 

Having  listed,  analyzed  and  investigated  each  act,  the  syn- 
thetic construction  must  follow.  This  was  in  part  discussed 
immediately  subsequent  to  Taylor 's  five  summaries  in  this 
paper,  in  Going's  quotation.  It  is  based  on  the  belief  that 
there  is  one  best  way  to  do  any  one  thing,  and  that  usually 
this  best  way  can  be  determined  by  scientific  methods.  Every 
effort  is  made  to  discourage  the  practice  of  deciding  matters 
on  anyone's  personal  opinion.  A  most  careful  study  is  made 
of  the  facts  above  gathered.  They  are  pored  over  and  reasoned 
over,  time  and  again.  There  must  be  a  reason  for  every  thing. 


176  SCHOOLS   UNDER   SCIENTIFIC    MANAGEMENT. 

The  investigator  will  probably  be  mixed  and  troubled,  but 
after  he  has  timed  one  job  for  thirty  times,  he  will  have 
acquired  good  judgment  and  will  finally  be  able  to  decide 
upon  each  elementary  motion  and  each  elementary  allowed 
time,  which  will  be  permitted  to  enter  into  the  standard  or 
ideal  time  and  method  for  doing  that  job. 

The  standard  act  or  "operation*7  of  course  means  that  there 
are  standard  conditions  and  standard  equipment.  These  are 
to  be  provided  for  under  the  previous  headings. 

The  best  ways  for  doing  all  the  acts  mean  a  saving  for  the 
professor,  student  and  university,  of  time,  energy  and  money. 

VI.  Selection  of  men  fitted  to  do  the  work. 

There  are  in  this  matter  two  opposed  opinions,  with  all  the 
gradations  which  completely  fill  the  middle  ground.  One 
group  of  efficiency  engineers  would  lay  down  hard  and  high 
standards,  and  then  hunt  for  men  to  measure  up  to  them.  The 
result  would  be  a  picked  body  of  workers. 

The  other  group  would  be  more  flexible,  and  by  taking  a 
body  of  workers  as  they  found  them,  would  highly  educate 
those  who  had  capacity  for  high  achievement,  but  also  improve 
and  use  those  who  could  never  hope  to  keep  up  with  the  leaders. 
It  remains  for  the  future  to  see  which  method  will  work  out 
better  with  professors  as  the  men  to  be  improved  or  selected, 
and  the  students  as  the  material.  Functional  foremanship 
may  develop  a  bureau  for  the  placing  and  exchange  of  teach- 
ers fit  for  a  function.  In  the  industries,  it  is  certainly  easier 
to  find  a  functional  foreman  and  easier  to  break  him  into  his 
new  position,  than  the  old  time  military  foreman  trying  to 
perform  all  functions. 

VII.  Training  of  men  so  selected,  to  do  the  work  in  the  way 
determined  to  be  the  best,  each  man  being  developed  to  his 
greatest  efficiency  and  prosperity. 

To  train  a  man,  he  must  be  put  into  possession  of  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  best  method  you  expect  him  to  follow.  Scientific 
management  provides  the  workman  with  standard  tools. 
There  will  need  to  be  worked  up  standard  lectures  for  the 


H.    WADE    HIBBAKD.  177 

younger  teachers  to  use.  A  professor  must  not  consider  his  own 
lecture  notes  and  his  teaching  mechanisms  as  his  own  private 
11  stock  in  trade."  These  standard  lectures  are  to  be  found  in 
the  physics  department  of  the  University  of  Toronto.  As 
there  explained  by  the  professor  in  charge,  "All  the  members 
of  the  department  use  them  as  the  basis  of  their  lectures. 
Our  men  are  made  available  for  class  work  earlier.  These 
notes,  being  available  for  our  instructors,  leave  their  time  free 
to  develop  other  and  new  lecture  courses,  or  to  carry  on 
research. ' ' 

Such  standard  lectures  aid  in  a  careful  thinking  out  of  a 
lecture,  and  when  rightly  used  are  harmless  to  desirable  in- 
spiration (not  the  "inspiration  of  the  moment"). 

It  may  be  best  to  buy  such  notes  outright,  or  to  engage  new 
men  with  the  understanding  that  part  of  their  time  is  to  be 
given  to  working  up  such  standards. 

It  is  of  course  to  be  well  understood  that  this  idea  of  stand- 
ardizing is  not  to  be  applied  to  students  in  such  a  way  as  to 
enable  them  to  avoid  thinking  out  the  personal  and  vital  solu- 
tion of  the  problems  for  themselves. 

All  the  best  methods  of  section  V  will  be  reduced  to  the 
form  of  complete  instruction  sheets  for  use  later  in  teaching. 

There  will  be  expert  instruction  in  teaching  methods. 

Committee  meetings  will  be  standardized,  and  so  the  wasted 
time  cut  out.  All  routine  work  will  be  done  for  the  professor, 
such  as  mimeographing,  issuing  stores,  taking  of  inventory, 
room  scheduling,  typewriting,  etc.  He  will  also  be  relieved 
from  all  the  higher  functions  for  which  a  better  man  can  be 
found,  leaving  him  free  to  develop  his  own  function  or 
specialty  to  the  very  highest  degree  of  perfection  free  from 
interference.  Every  man  will  be  in  a  place  where  he  can 
best  develop. 

There  will  be  a  definite  day  of  work,  with  more  close  appli- 
cation during  the  established  hours,  and  then  relaxation.  Both 
professors  and  students  will  be  obliged  to  rest  one  day  in 
seven.  The  time  studies  in  mental  fatigue  will  have  deter- 


178  SCHOOLS   UNDEB   SCIENTIFIC    MANAGEMENT. 

mined  the  class  schedules  for  students  and  professors  so  that 
there  will  be  proper  rest  intervals  during  the  day. 

VIII.  By  adequate  supervision  and  proper  incentive,  en- 
sure that  the  men  practice  the  best  methods  all  the  time, 
securing  and  continuing  maximum  output. 

A  new  central  bureau  will  have  as  its  function :  Inspection. 
In  the  industries,  it  would  be  a  silly  sort  of  inspection  to  have 
the  very  piece  workers,  who  planed  or  drilled  the  article,  in- 
spect it  and  pass  it  on  to  the  stock  room  as  perfect.  So 
examinations  will  be  given  not  by  the  teacher  of  the  boys 
examined. 

The  entire  scholastic  record  of  a  student  will  be  taken,  and 
every  department  will  know  what  he  is  doing  in  all  his  other 
departments. 

A  proper  discipline  will  require  the  same  attendance  at 
class  and  in  the  university  as  though  the  student  were  in  an 
industrial  organization,  where  one  "cut"  would  bring  a 
serious  reprimand,  and  the  second  "cut"  would  probably 
cause  him  to  lose  his  position. 

Efficiency  rewards  will  be  arranged  for  speed  with  excel- 
lence upon  such  work  as  kinematic  and  thermodynamic 
problems. 

There  is  need  to  get  professors  to  work  not  harder,  but  more 
efficiently. 

There  is  almost  no  "proper  incentive"  needed,  for  it  is  a 
body  of  employees  made  up  of  most  intelligent  owners.  Each 
teacher  is  desirous  of  doing  a  full  amount  of  work,  yet  does 
not  want  to  spoil  a  loved  course  by  being  overworked  in  other 
courses  or  ways.  The  feeling  of  ownership  of  the  university 
by  the  faculty  workers  decidedly  obliterates  one  feature  of 
need  of  application  of  a  principle  of  scientific  management. 
The  point  can  best  be  illustrated  by  a  quotation  from  the  Pitts- 
burgh paper  of  1911*  in  which  the  writer  was  joint  author. 
' '  Scientific  management  is  not  a  natural  outgrowth  of  systems 
or  even  of  system.  It  is  not  an  evolution.  It  is  rather  a 

*  Proceedings,  Vol.  XIX,  p.  19. 


H.    WADE   HIBBAED.  179 

reversion  to  type.  A  great  industry  under  scientific  manage- 
ment closely  resembles  in  its  essentials  the  small  shop,  in  which 
the  owner  and  his  few  men  intimately  connected  with  him 
were  studying  and  working  intelligently  and  harmoniously 
with  a  view  to  perfecting  the  operation.  The  unscientific  large 
shop  has  a  manager  most  distantly  removed  from  a  vital  con- 
nection with  the  operation,  and  the  latter  is  left  to  those 
unable  to  give  it  intelligent  study." 

An  effective  organization  must  stimulate  by  the  force  of 
example.  Hence  every  man  should  have  specific  and  visible 
individual  duties,  which  all  other  men  can  see  he  performs 
well.  The  "dispatching"  of  the  industries  becomes  here  the 
assignment  of  work  to  teachers  by  the  proper  authority,  after 
of  course  proper  advice  has  been  taken  from  staff  specialist. 
If  the  department  is  operated  under  functional  foremanship, 
the  dispatching  will  be  done  by  the  expert  whose  function 
that  duty  is. 

Every  teacher  must  be  made  to  feel  a  sense  of  personal  pro- 
prietorship in  the  work  for  which  he  is  chosen. 

IX.  Team  work,  without  hampering  a  wise  individualism. 
The  Cooke  report  recommends  in  every  university  a  "gen- 
eral research  board,"  whose  duty  it  would  be 

(a)  To  organize  the  general  policy  of  the  institution  in  the 
matter  of  research, 

(b)  To  bring  about  as  much  cooperation  as  possible  between 
the  departments, 

(c)  To  correlate  as  much  as  possible  research  work  going  on 
in  different  sciences, 

(d)  To  procure  assistance  for  those  needing  it, 

(e)  To  pass  upon  the  expediency  of  undertaking  any  given 
project, 

(/)  And  to  keep  constant  track  of  the  progress  of  work  and 
of  its  cost. 

The  writer  would  like  to  add  to  duty  (b)  that  the  coopera- 
tion should  extend  to  other  universities,  to  include  also  the 
shipping  of  both  apparatus  and  students  to  the  places  where 
they  will  fit  best. 


180          SCHOOLS   UNDEK   SCIENTIFIC    MANAGEMENT. 

All  teachers  should  keep  closely  in  touch  with  each  other, 
in  office  calls,  walks,  sports,  clubs,  and  elsewhere. 

There  should  be  frequent  (at  least  monthly)  informal  con- 
ferences of  a  small  group  of  professors  to  discuss  "  progress 
policies"  for  the  institution. 

Understudies  should  be  ready  to  fill  any  man's  place  at  a 
moment's  notice,  should  he  be  taken  ill  or  be  called  elsewhere. 
The  teacher  should  himself  be  training  his  own  understudy. 

One  should  never  disparage  a  teacher  when  talking  to 
another  teacher,  or  to  a  student. 

A  teacher  or  officer  with  larger  responsibilities  should  unload 
certain  of  his  responsibilities  upon  other  men,  thus  not  only 
giving  them  the  valuable  training,  but  also  releasing  more  of 
his  time  for  consideration  of  the  larger  policies  of  future 
progress  for  the  school  or  department. 

Conversely,  every  man  to  whom  responsibility  is  given 
should  gladly  assume  his  duty  and  make  his  decisions  himself 
and  accept  whatever  blame  or  credit  may  be  his  due,  rather 
than  try  to  shift  his  responsibility  upon  the  man  above  him. 
It  is  his  duty,  nay  privilege,  to  relieve  the  man  above  of  all 
the  work  possible. 

In  introducing  new  plans,  it  should  be  remembered  that 
evolution  is  safer  than  revolution,  and  that  the  new  plan 
should  be  thought  through  to  its  results  from  every  point  of 
view. 

For  profiting  by  intimate  colleague  associations,  one  should 
analyze  into  elements  the  successes  and  failures  of  others, 
learning  the  efficiency  beatitude  "Blessed  be  the  man  which 
learneth  from  experience,  but  thrice  blessed  be  he  which  learn- 
eth  from  the  experience  of  others." 

X.  Cooperation  between  managers  and  men. 

XI.  Building  up  of  an  advisory  cabinet  or  staff,  if  the 
Emerson  principle  seems  preferable  and  the  old  line  officers 
are  retained;  or  organizing  functional  foremanship,  if  the 
Taylor  principle  seems  preferable. 

A  suggestion  is  offered  for  a  staff  of  experts  for  a  university 


H.    WADE    HIBBABD.  181 

president.  These  men  may  also  be  professors  or  adminis- 
trative officers,  but  their  primary  duty  should  be  as  the  presi- 
dent's aids.  Their  functions  are  as  follows:  alumni,  build- 
ings and  grounds,  department  needs,  discipline,  equipment, 
finances,  legislation  in  state,  pedagogy,  relations  among  the 
colleges  and  the  departments,  relations  with  other  universities, 
research,  selection  of  professors,  student  activities. 

XII.  Delimiting  the  respective  duties  of  officers  and  cabinet, 
or  manager  and  functional  foreman. 

Acknowledgment  is  made  for  extracts,  sometimes  condensed 
and  without  quotation  marks,  from  the  following  authors  on 
efficiency:  Cooke,  Emerson,  Ennis,  Evans,  Gantt,  Gilbreth, 
Going,  Jacobs,  Taylor. 

In  conclusion : 

' '  Well,  what  of  it  ? "  Some  one  will  say :  many  of  the  effi- 
ciency suggestions  in  this  paper  are  minor,  almost  the  non- 
essentials  ;  that  the  teacher 's  ability  to  understand  a  student 's 
difficulties,  to  lead  him  into  right  scientific  methods,  to  stop 
teaching  when  a  student  has  been  taught  enough,  to  inspire, — 
has  not  been  touched  upon  nor  greater  efficiency  pointed  out. 

To  reply:  the  efficiency  engineer,  at  work  in  an  industrial 
plant,  does  not  attempt  to  give  fundamental  brains  to  a  man- 
ager and  his  subordinates.  He  does  not  give  the  inspiring 
soul  to  a  superintendent.  There  are  qualities  of  soul  which 
the  Creator  alone  gives  to  leaders  in  the  industries  and  in 
teaching.  The  purpose  of  this  paper  is  to  show  how  an  effi- 
ciency engineer  might  relieve  a  leader's  soul  from  present 
handicaps,  petty  and  huge,  and  enable  it  thus  to  work  more 
efficiently. 

May  I  join  Mr.  Cooke  in  full  sympathy  with  the  spiritual 
significance  of  university  life,  and  with  him  quote  from  Presi- 
dent Eliot:  "Education  for  efficiency  must  not  be  material- 
istic, prosaic  or  utilitarian ;  it  must  be  idealistic,  humane  and 
passionate,  or  it  will  not  win  its  goal." 


EFFICIENCY  IN  ENGINEERING  EDUCATION. 


BY  GEOEGE  H.  SHEPARD, 

Associate  of  the  Emerson  Company,  New  York. 

The  principles  of  efficiency  are  definitely  known.  The  fol- 
lowing table  compares  the  two  most  famous  statements  of 
them: 

TAYLOR  's   STATEMENT. 
The   Four   Elements   of   Scientific 
Management. 


EMERSON  '3   STATEMENT. 

The    Twelve   Principles    of   Effi- 
ciency. 


The  development  (by  the  manage- 
ment, not  the  workman)  of  the 
science  of  the  work,  with  rigid 
rules  for  each  motion  of  every 
man,  and  the  perfection  and 
standardization  of  all  imple- 
ments and  working  conditions. 

The  careful  selection  and  subse- 
quent training  of  the  workers 
into  first  class  men,  and  the 
elimination  of  all  men  who  re- 
fuse or  are  unable  to  adopt  the 
best  methods. 


Supernal  Common  Sense. 
Competent  Guidance. 
Standardization  of  Conditions. 
Standardization  of  Operations. 
Determination  of  Standards. 


Ideals. 
Discipline. 


Bringing  the  first  class  workman 
and  the  science  of  the  work  to- 
gether, through  the  constant  help 
and  watchfulness  of  the  manage- 
ment, and  through  paying  each 
man  a  large  daily  bonus  for  work- 
ing fast  and  doing  what  he  is 
told  to  do. 

An  almost  equal  division  of  the 
work  and  responsibility  between 
the  workman  and  the  manage- 
ment. All  day  long  the  manage- 

182 


Fair  Deal. 
Efficiency  Eeward. 

Immediate,  Adequate  and  Reliable 
Records. 


Standard  Practice  Instructions. 


GEOEGE   H.    SHEPAED.  183 

ment  work  almost  side  by  side  Planning  and  Despatching, 
with  the  men,  helping,  encour- 
aging, and  smoothing  the  way 
for  them,  while  in  the  past  they 
stood  one  side,  gave  the  men  but 
little  help,  and  threw  onto  them 
almost  the  entire  responsibility 
as  to  methods,  implements,  speed 
and  harmonious  cooperation. 

To  resolve  all  efficiency  into  certain  definite  principles  was 
a  service  comparable  to  the  analysis  of  all  matter  into  a  limited 
number  of  chemical  elements.  The  principles  of  efficiency  are 
applicable  to  absolutely  all  human  activity,  and,  though  dis- 
covered in  industry,  by  the  aid  of  them,  the  Emerson  Com- 
pany has  done  betterment  work  in  an  institution  as  remote 
from  industry  as  a  hospital.  Just  as,  by  applying  the  tests 
for  the  different  chemical  elements,  a  qualitative  analysis  can 
be  made  of  any  substance,  so  by  searching  for  the  presence  in 
any  work  of  each  of  the  principles  of  efficiency,  a  qualitative 
analysis  of  its  efficiency  can  be  made,  that  is,  it  can  be  de- 
termined in  what  respects  the  work  is  efficient  and  in  what 
inefficient.  In  this  paper  I  submit  to  the  Society  such  a  quali- 
tative analysis  of  American  engineering  education.  A  suffi- 
cient reason  for  my  using  Emerson's  principles  is  that  they 
are  to  me  familiar  tools.  A  college,  of  course,  has  its  business 
side,  an  enquiry  into  the  efficiency  of  which  has  been  con- 
ducted by  Morris  L.  Cooke  and  reported  to  the  Carnegie 
Foundation  under  the  title  of  "Industrial  and  Academic 
Efficiency."  This  paper  is  confined  to  the  educational  work 
of  the  technical  college.  Probably  many  of  the  suggestions 
that  I  make  will  be  considered  impracticable ;  but  it  is  only  by 
the  successful  accomplishment  of  things  that  the  so-called 
"practical  man"  thus  condemns  off-hand,  that  the  science  of 
efficiency  has  attained  its  actual  measure  of  achievement. 

I.    IDEALS. 

The  ideals  of  a  college,  at  least  of  its  faculty,  are  commonly 
known  as  the  "college  policy."  I  suppose  that  every  college 


184  EFFICIENCY  IN  ENGINEERING  EDUCATION. 

faculty  talks  in  faculty  meetings  about  its  " policy"  and 
thinks  that  it  has  one;  but  that  sacred  thing  is  likely  to  be 
composed  of  a  number  of  rather  unrelated  dictums,  like  "We 
do  not  accept  substitutions  except  in  kind,"  and  "We  dis- 
courage the  admission  of  special  students";  while  a  college 
policy  in  the  sense  of  a  clearly  defined  ideal,  toward  which,  in 
all  its  activities,  it  is  constantly,  consciously,  and  consistently 
striving,  is  apt  to  be  lacking. 

The  German  technical  university  has  a  definite  and  clear 
ideal.  It  is  to  be  the  leader  and  guide  of  German  industry 
in  the  application  of  science  to  its  work.  This  ideal  has  the 
support  of  the  state,  the  faculty,  and  the  students.  The  pro- 
fessor is  expected  to  be,  and  is,  a  producer  of  new  knowledge, 
of  which  German  industry  receives  the  benefit;  and  this  is  a 
principal  cause  of  German  scientific  and  industrial  eminence. 
Students  are  a  by-product,  of  which  twenty-five  per  cent,  or 
more  are  reclaimed.  Now  a  single  correct  ideal  does  not  make 
efficiency,  but  it  is  a  step  in  the  right  direction ;  and  certainly 
the  German  technical  university  has  it. 

At  the  head  of  the  American  university  is  usually  a  board 
of  regents  or  of  trustees,  who  are  not  supposed  to  be  educators 
and  whose  ideal  for  the  technical  college,  if  they  have  any,  is 
probably  best  expressed  in  the  words  of  the  Morrill  Land 
Grant  Act — ' '  to  teach  such  branches  of  learning  as  are  related 
to  agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts."  That  means,  to  pass 
along  the  rudiments  of  technical  knowledge  to  successive 
classes  of  undergraduates.  Far  from  the  professors  being 
supposed  to  be  fountains  of  new  knowledge,  they  are  con- 
sidered to  do  well  if  they  can  keep  their  own  attainments 
abreast  of  the  progress  of  industry.  For  the  achievement  of 
this  ideal  the  regents  or  trustees  are  dependent  upon  a  faculty 
which  is  usually  thoroughly  permeated  with  the  German  ideal. 
In  the  usual  American  technical  college  the  ultimate  authority 
does  not  recognize  or  support  the  ideal  of  discovery  of  new 
knowledge,  therefore  research  cannot  be  efficiently  carried  on ; 
the  faculty  accepts  with  reluctance,  as  something  forced  upon 
it  from  above,  the  ideal  of  merely  giving  instruction  and 


GEOBGE   H.    SHEPAED.  185 

strives  futilely  to  follow  its  own  ideal.  A  certain  famous 
American  physicist,  after  stating  the  researches  that  he  ex- 
pected to  make  during  the  next  session  of  his  university, 
was  asked:  "What  will  you  do  with  your  students ?" 
"Neglect  them,"  was  the  reply.  Neglect  of  students  does 
not  tend  to  efficiency  of  teaching. 

It  behooves  every  American  college  faculty  to  consider  seri- 
ously what  the  ideal  of  the  institution  really  is,  not  what  the 
faculty  would  like  it  to  be;  and,  unless  reform,  rather  than 
efficiency,  is  sought,  to  bend  its  energies  to  the  loyal  support 
of  that  ideal.  On  the  other  hand,  I  have  before  stated  to 
this  society  my  belief  that  a  college  teacher  cannot  com- 
mand the  respect  of  his  students  sufficiently  to  secure  high 
efficiency  unless  they  recognize  him  as  a  first-hand  authority 
and  source  of  knowledge  in  his  subject  instead  of  a  mere  con- 
duit from  original  sources  to  his  students.  It  therefore  be- 
hooves the  ultimate  authority  of  the  university  to  accept  the 
ideal  of  production  of  new  knowledge  and  properly  to  support 
the  pursuit  of  it.  There  can  be  only  low  efficiency  where  the 
two  ideals  are  in  conflict.  There  can  be  fair  efficiency,  in  the 
pursuit  of  either  ideal  where  it  alone  is  held  and  is  con- 
sistently followed.  There  can  be  high  all-round  efficiency  only 
where  both  ideals  are  recognized  and  harmonized. 

Another  ideal  that  requires  clear  definition  is  whether  the 
college  is  to  give  a  broad  general  grounding  in  the  funda- 
mentals of  engineering,  or  is  to  give  a  highly  developed,  but 
narrow,  education  in  some  specialty.  The  former  is  becoming 
more  and  more  recognized  as  the  only  proper  ideal  of  the 
undergraduate  courses,  the  second  being  reserved  for  graduate 
specialists.  In  spite  of  this,  the  teachers,  having  necessarily 
developed  into  specialists,  tend  to  try  to  develop  even  under- 
graduate students  into  specialists  in  their  own  lines.  Also 
the  curriculum,  under  the  care  of  these  same  specialists 
gradually  becomes  overgrown  with  specialties.  The  professor 
of  electrical  engineering,  for  example,  thinks  that  a  three-hour 
course  in  wireless  telegraphy  is  something  without  which  no 
one  can  properly  be  called  an  electrical  engineer.  The  senior 


186  EFFICIENCY  IN  ENGINEERING  EDUCATION. 


"eleetricals"  are  carrying  only  twenty- two  semester  hours,  so 
of  course  they  can  take  on  three  more.  At  the  next  faculty 
meeting,  therefore,  the  professor  recommends  a  three-hour 
course  in  ''wireless."  Faculty  courtesy,  of  course,  requires 
that  the  professor  should  have  what  he  wants  in  his  own 
department,  so  behold  the  hapless  senior  electricals  carrying 
twenty-five  semester  hours.  Meanwhile  the  preservation  of  a 
curriculum  well  balanced  in  the  fundamentals  of  engineering, 
being  everybody's  business,  is  nobody's  business. 

II.    SUPERNAL  COMMON  SENSE. 

The  efficiency  principle  of  supernal  common  sense  requires 
nothing  less  than  the  application  to  the  work  in  hand  of  all 
the  wisdom  and  knowledge  that  can  be  brought  to  bear  upon 
it.  It  is  a  very  grateful  task  to  the  technical  professor  to  rub 
this  principle  into  the  industrial  manager,  who  is  prone  to 
employ  a  cheap  and  uneducated  draftsman  to  work  out  by 
empirical  thumb  rules  from  a  hand-book,  problems  which  the 
professor  knows  would  be  much  more  cheaply  and  efficiently 
done  by  himself,  on  a  basis  of  real  science,  and  for  a  large 
fee.  This  is  one  of  the  vexations  of  the  professor's  career. 
Let  us,  however,  consider  the  technician  in  the  act  of  teaching. 

When,  as  dean  of  the  engineering  college  of  Syracuse  Uni- 
versity, I  tried  to  apply  the  principles  of  efficiency  to  the  work 
of  that  college,  I  found  myself  at  once  in  the  thick  of  prob- 
lems of  psychology  and  pedagogy.  Considering  that  all  teach- 
ing is  an  application  of  these  two  sciences,  it  has  ever  since 
seemed  to  me  strange  that  from  my  first  day  as  a  young 
instructor  I  was  not  placed  under  their  guidance,  for  it  is  self- 
evident  that  there  can  be  no  efficient  teaching  except  in 
obedience  to  their  laws.  I  was  struck  also  by  the  fact  that 
those  students  who  had  athletic  ambitions  were  training  to 
keep  their  bodies  in  the  best  possible  condition,  but  all  stu- 
dents, as  far  as  conserving  their  brain  power  was  concerned, 
were  living  haphazard  lives.  It  seems  plain  that  the  man 
who  wishes  to  use  his  brain  at  maximum  efficiency  should  live 
under  a  proper  regimen  of  diet,  exercise,  sleep,  recreation, 


GEOBGE   H.   SHEPAKD.  187 

and  study ;  in  other  words,  should  train  as  assiduously  as  the 
athlete,  and  much  more  continuously. 

Now  in  psychology,  pedagogics,  and  physical  training,  I 
had  precisely  that  little  knowledge  which  is  a  dangerous  thing. 
Moreover  I  had  not  time  to  master  these  subjects.  Any  tech- 
nical teacher  is  likely  to  find  himself  in  very  much  the  same 
situation.  Our  own  subjects  are  big  enough  to  absorb  all  of 
our  time  and  labor  without  any  prospect  of  our  ever  attain- 
ing exhaustive  knowledge  of  them.  In  as  far  as  we  allow 
ourselves  to  be  diverted  from  them,  our  proper  usefulness  is 
diminished.  The  solution  is  to  be  found  in  the  application  of 
the  next  principle. 

III.    COMPETENT  GUIDANCE. 

The  facts  which  I  have  stated  in  the  last  two  paragraphs 
lead  me  to  believe  that  every  technical  college  should  have 
as  staff  advisers  an  expert  professional  teacher,  and  a  physi- 
cian who  has  specialized  in  physical  training,  while  efficiency 
itself  should  be  under  the  charge  of  an  efficiency  engineer. 
Those  members  of  the  Society  who  are  not  familiar  with  staff 
organization  are  referred  to  Mr.  Harrington  Emerson's  books, 
" Efficiency  as  a  Basis  of  Operation  and  Wages "  and  "The 
Principles  of  Efficiency."  In  special  cases  still  other  staff 
officers  might  be  necessary.  I  am  satisfied  that  in  any  case, 
the  three  above  mentioned  are  essential  to  the  best  efficiency. 
I  mention  here  only  the  chiefs  of  staff.  Each  chief  should, 
of  course,  have  such  subordinate  assistance  as  is  required  by 
the  amount  of  work  on  hand.  Undoubtedly  most  boards  of 
university  regents  or  trustees  would  object  on  the  ground  of 
expense  to  the  employment  of  pedagogic,  medical,  efficiency 
and  other  staff.  It  is  difficult  to  convince  even  university 
authorities  that  brains  are  really  needed  in  the  conduct  of  an 
institution,  and  that,  though  they  are  costly,  in  the  end  they 
pay  better  than  any  other  investment.  It  must  be  recognized 
that  knowledge  is  the  price  of  efficiency,  and  they  who  will 
not  pay  for  the  former  cannot  have  the  latter.  Those  of  us 
who  have  the  good  fortune  to  belong  to  colleges  which  are 


188  EFFICIENCY  IN  ENGINEERING  EDUCATION. 

parts  of  universities,  can  probably  appeal  to  the  self-sacrificing 
spirit  common  to  teachers,  to  obtain  the  assistance  of  experts 
from  the  other  faculties.  At  Syracuse  I  laid  my  pedagogic 
and  pyschological  problems  before  Dean  Street  of  the  Teach- 
er's College,  and  found  him  more  than  willing  to  advise  me. 
If,  by  similar  means,  an  actual  demonstration  of  improved 
efficiency  can  be  made,  a  basis  will  be  secured  on  which  to 
appeal  to  higher  authorities  for  financial  support. 

Another  difficulty  which  will  have  to  be  met  is  unwilling- 
ness to  accept  staff  assistance.  Some  teachers  will  doubtless 
feel  affronted  by  the  suggestion  that  their  work  should  be  in- 
spected, and  that  they  should  be  advised  by  a  pedagogic  staff. 
Probably  very  few  students  will  at  first  accept  the  idea  that 
they  should  go  into  training  for  their  scholastic  work.  These 
difficulties  are  to  be  overcome,  precisely  as  the  objection  of 
industrial  workers  to  staff  guidance  is  overcome.  A  selected 
few  are  first  to  be  found  who  appreciate  and  willingly  accept 
staff  guidance.  The  efforts  of  the  staff  are  at  first  to  be  con- 
centrated on  these,  and  upon  them  a  demonstration  is  to  be 
made  that  they  profit  by  those  efforts.  The  benefits  received 
by  them  will  make  others  more  willing  to  accept  the  same 
advantages,  and  the  work  can  gradually  be  extended. 

Dealing,  as  we  do,  with  immature  youths,  the  proctor 
system  of  the  English  universities  would  be  a  valuable  addi- 
tion to  our  staff.  The  function  of  the  proctor  is  to  keep  in 
close  touch  with  a  group  of  students  assigned  to  him  and  to 
advise  them  both  as  to  college  and  outside  affairs.  All  of  us 
know  that  our  students,  notably  the  freshmen,  would  benefit 
greatly  by  close  touch  with  a  wise  and  friendly  adviser.  The 
technical  faculties  are  too  heavily  burdened  for  them  to 
assume  this  function.  I  wish  it  to  be  clearly  understood  that 
I  do  not  anywhere  in  this  paper  advocate  adding  to  the  labors 
of  the  present  teachers.  On  the  contrary  they  should  be 
relieved.  In  supervising  students  by  proctors,  it  is  necessary 
to  remember  that  too  close  keeping  of  an  adolescent  in  leading 
strings  is  fatal  to  his  development,  a  fact  which  nature  has 
recognized  by  giving  him  a  strong  instinct  to  rebel  against  it. 


GEORGE   H.    SHEPABD.  189 

At  the  same  time,  lie  is  not  yet  fit  for  complete  self -guidance. 
The  situation  is  critical  and  calls  for  careful  selection  of  the 
proctors  and  for  their  classification  as  junior  officers  of  the 
psychological  staff.  If,  in  conjunction  with  betterment  work 
in  the  institution  itself,  courses  in  efficiency  could  be  given 
therein  for  which  credit  would  be  given,  selected  upper  class 
men  who  were  taking  the  efficiency  course  could  be  made 
proctors  over  the  freshmen  as  part  of  its  work.  I  mention 
this  only  as  a  temporary  expedient,  recognizing  that  better- 
ment work  in  a  university  must  prove  itself  before  financial 
support  can  be  got  for  it.  As  soon  as  possible  the  proctors,  or 
tutors,  should  be  regular  salaried  officers  of  the  university 
administration.  They  will  doubtless  pay  for  themselves.  In 
an  institution  where  the  students  pay  tuition,  a  proctor  would 
not  have  to  save  many  from  the  various  pitfalls  which  drop 
the  unwary  from  the  rolls,  in  order  to  earn  his  salary.  In 
state  universities  the  economy  would  return  to  the  public  in- 
directly, but  really,  by  saving  students  from  failure,  by  guid- 
ing them  into  careers  for  which  they  were  suited,  and  by 
enabling  them  to  graduate  with  sounder  bodies  and  better 
minds  and  characters. 

IV.    DISCIPLINE. 

In  the  matter  of  discipline,  the  American  institution  of 
learning  has  a  tremendous  advantage.  Those  who  are  ac- 
customed to  think  of  discipline  only  in  terms  of  the  man-of- 
war  would  probably,  on  a  superficial  examination,  be  im- 
pressed that  there  is  no  discipline  in  the  college;  but  that  is 
far  from  the  fact.  With  all  their  free  and  easy  ways,  college 
students  are  obedient ;  and  they  usually  regard  their  teachers 
with  respect,  and  often  with  affection.  Moreover,  they  are 
filled  with  an  overflowing  love  for,  and  loyalty  to,  their  Alma 
Mater,  which,  though  sometimes  mistaken  in  its  expression,  is 
very  real  and  offers  an  unfailing  appeal  to  them  on  behalf 
of  all  right  action.  It  would  be  to  any  industrial  organiza- 
tion an  asset  of  untold  value  to  have  among  its  employees 
an  espirt  de  corps  at  all  approaching  "college  spirit." 
13 


190  EFFICIENCY  IN  ENGINEEEING  EDUCATION. 

With  local  variations,  there  is,  in  the  main,  only  one  direc- 
tion, in  which  improvement  in  discipline  suggests  itself  to  me. 
That  is  in  the  more  careful  selection  of  young  men  for  the 
engineering  profession.  I  am  not  speaking  here  of  the  edu- 
cational requirements  for  admission.  To  all  of  us  cases  are 
familiar  of  students,  struggling  along  in  the  technical  colleges, 
who  are  totally  unfit  to  be  engineers.  I  remember  one  young 
man  who  turned  in  a  design  of  a  boiler,  with  the  mouth  of 
the  furnace  blanked  off  by  a  solid  steel  plate,  and  who  after- 
ward found  a  more  congenial  career  on  the  stage.  Of  course 
the  "bust-notice"  usually  gets  rid  of  most  of  these,  but  there 
are  many  who  have  too  much  brains  for  that,  who  drag  along 
to  their  own  unhappiness  and  the  despair  of  the  faculty,  and 
to  ultimate  failure  in  life,  unless  they  go  into  some  other  work 
before  they  are  too  old.  It  should  be  one  of  the  functions  of 
the  proctors  to  find  such  cases  very  early  in  their  student 
careers,  and  to  bring  them  to  the  attention  of  the  faculty. 
The  latter  should  advise,  and  should  have  authority,  advice 
failing,  to  drop  from  the  student  rolls  those  unfit  for  the 
engineering  profession. 

V.     THE  FAIR  DEAL. 

Under  the  head  of  the  fair  deal  we  can  gladly  mark  the  tech- 
nical college  100  per  cent,  (minus)  and  let  it  go  at  that.  While 
the  college  has  not  attained  absolute  perfection,  that  industry 
is  indeed  a  shining  light,  in  which  the  workers  have  as  much 
confidence  as  prevails  in  a  college  in  the  justice  of  the  admin- 
istration. Such  confidence  is  a  great  advantage  in  undertak- 
ing betterment  work.  For  example,  the  dropping  of  students 
for  unfitness  for  the  engineering  profession,  advocated  above, 
could  not  be  undertaken  by  any  faculty  in  whose  fair  dealing 
the  students  did  not  have  confidence. 

VI.     STANDARDIZATION  OF  CONDITIONS. 

The  purpose  of  standardization  of  conditions  is  not  only  to 
make  conditions  constant,  or  standard,  but  to  make  them  as 


GEOKGE    H.    SHEPARD.  191 

suitable  as  possible  to  the  work  in  hand.  The  idea  of  adapta- 
tion is  quite  as  prominent  as  that  of  standardization.  Adapta- 
tion, of  course,  works  both  ways.  Adaptation  of  conditions  to 
the  work  is  most  desirable,  but  is  often  impossible.  Man  has 
been  obliged,  in  the  main,  to  adapt  his  work  to  his  conditions ; 
that  is,  to  do  what  his  circumstances  allowed.  Far  be  it  from 
me  to  decry  a  noble  effort  to  do  needed  work  under  adverse 
circumstances.  Humanity  owes  its  progress  to  the  fact  that 
heroes,  saints,  and  martyrs  have  sacrificed  even  their  lives  in 
such  attempts,  but  that  is  aside  from  efficiency,  which  is  the 
subject  of  the  present  paper. 

Under  the  head  of  adaptation,  or  standardization  of  con- 
ditions, there  is  more  need  of  a  propaganda  among  the  finan- 
cial authorities  of  colleges  than  among  the  members  of  this 
society,  who  like  other  college  professors,  are  undoubtedly  as 
insistent  on  proper  equipment  for  their  departments  as  they 
can  be  without  becoming  completely  disliked  in  the  president's 
office.  Among  the  financial  authorities,  equipment  is  often  a 
case  of  cutting  the  coat  to  fit  the  cloth ;  but,  when  a  university 
puts  a  half  million  dollars  into  a  gigantic  stadium  and  another 
quarter  million  into  a  gymnasium,  while  its  engineering  col- 
lege is  turned  off  with  a  niggardly  equipment,  it  is  plain  that 
its  administration  is  inappreciative  of  the  application  of  this 
principle  of  efficiency  in  technical  education. 

It  is  also  obvious  that  a  college  should  not  undertake  work 
for  which,  by  location  or  otherwise,  it  is  manifestly  unsuited. 
One  cannot  think,  for  example,  that  a  school  of  marine  engi- 
neering is  likely  to  be  highly  efficient  in  an  inland  college 
remote  from  any  more  striking  example  of  naval  architecture 
than  a  canal  boat.  If  we  had  had  pedagogic  guidance,  we 
should  long  ago  have  recognized  the  superiority  of  the 
practical-theoretical  method  of  teaching,  which  is  followed 
only  by  the  few  institutions  that  have  adopted  the  cooperative,, 
or  part  time,  plan  over  the  theoretical-practical  plan  which  is 
still  followed  by  most.  If  we  had  designed  a  man  on  the 
drawing  board  and  then  built  him  in  the  shop,  we  should 
probably  have  made  him  so  that  he  would  have  inquired  first 


192  EFFICIENCY  IN  ENGINEEKING  EDUCATION. 

Why  ?  and  then  What  1  and  then  How  ?  He  would  have  been 
a  highly  intelligent  creature  whose  career  would  have  conie 
to  an  end  the  first  time  he  was  confronted  by  an  unknown 
and  unanalyzed  danger.  Imagine  him  in  the  path  of  a  speed- 
ing automobile.  It  would  be  time  to  telephone  for  the  under- 
taker, before  he  had  satisfied  his  philosophic  mind  that  there 
was  sufficient  reason  for  a  quick  dash  to  safety.  Man,  being 
the  product  of  a  long  struggle  against  adverse  conditions,  has 
been  so  firmly  impressed  by  heredity  with  the  necessity  for 
quickly  deciding  How,  and  of  the  inadvisability  of  bothering 
with  What  and  Why,  unless  the  thing  later  seems  worth  while, 
that  his  mind  will  work  that  way,  even  when,  on  the  whole,  it 
would  be  rather  better  if  he  reversed  the  process.  Much  as 
we  may  deplore  his  perversity,  we  shall  succeed  best  by  operat- 
ing him  in  his  natural  direction  of  working. 

Hence  we  shall  teach  best,  if,  instead  of  pouring  academic 
knowledge  into  our  students  for  four  years,  and  then  turning 
them  loose  to  find,  on  their  own  resources,  its  relation  to  prac- 
tical industry,  which  seems  strangely  indifferent  to  their  learn- 
ing, we  bring  them,  before  and  during  their  college  courses, 
into  actual  working  contact  with  industry  and  coordinate 
their  academic  instruction  as  closely  as  possible  with  their 
practical  experience.  This  is  a  standardization  of  conditions 
which,  by  cooperation  with  industry,  is  within  the  reach  of  all. 

VII.    DETERMINATION  OF  STANDARDS. 

For  the  sake  of  brevity,  I  shall  discuss  under  this  head  only 
one  standard  which  the  technical  college  conspicuously  lacks. 
That  is  one  of  student  capacity.  How  much  work  of  any 
given  subject  can  a  student  reasonably  be  expected  to  do  in 
an  hour  ?  How  many  of  us  are  there  who  can  answer  such  a 
question,  even  with  reference  to  our  own  subjects  only,  on 
any  basis  of  real  knowledge  ?  The  most  of  us  probably  know 
only  that  as  students,  we  ourselves  succeeded  in  learning 
about  so  much  per  lesson.  How  much  time  had  we  per  lesson  ? 
How  much  time  ha.s  the  student  now  ?  How  many  of  us  know, 
not  guess,  the  answers  to  these  questions  ?  In  the  face  of  these 


GEORGE  H.   SHEPARD.  193 

uncertainties,  the  inevitable  tendency  of  the  specialist,  who 
realizes  much  better  the  infinite  ramifications  of  his  own  sub- 
ject than  he  does  its  relative  unimportance  in  the  general 
scheme  of  things,  is  to  pile  onto  his  students  always  a  little 
more  and  a  little  more,  until  the  task  becomes  an  impossi- 
bility. The  result  is  inevitable.  On  the  one  hand  the  student 
must  resort  to  cramming,  to  memorizing,  to  bluffing,  in  order 
to  get  through.  On  the  other  hand  the  teacher,  for  the  sake 
of  his  own  reputation,  must  not  appear  to  be  unable  to  com- 
municate his  knowledge  to  a  reasonable  proportion  of  his 
students,  the  only  tangible  evidence  of  which  knowledge  is  a 
passing  mark  reported  to  the  registrar.  Hence  a  continual 
loading  of  the  subject  is  bound  to  result  in  a  continual  de- 
crease of  thoroughness  on  the  part  of  the  student,  and  a  con- 
tinual lowering  of  scholastic  standards  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher.  I  was  once  one  of  the  assistants  of  a  very  eminent 
engineer,  who  had  the  habit  of  handing  out  to  us  more  work 
for  a  day  than  we  could  do  in  a  week.  Fortunately  one  of  us 
soon  discovered  that  he  forgot  the  tasks,  as  soon  as  he  had 
assigned  them,  and  kindly  gave  the  rest  of  us  the  tip.  There- 
after, I  received  orders  for  the  most  preposterous  tasks  with- 
out either  a  protest  or  a  smile,  did  what  I  could  and  forgot  the 
rest,  which  my  chief  also  very  kindly  did.  The  results,  be- 
tween the  overloaded  student  and  the  specialist  professor,  are 
bound  to  be  similar. 

There  is  need  here  for  some  time  study  work  of  the  very 
highest  grade.  The  idea  of  time  study  of  mental  work  may 
strike  some  as  impracticable;  but  Dr.  F.  W.  Taylor  wrote 
me  that  the  first  time  studies  of  which  he  ever  knew,  and  which 
first  suggested  the  idea  to  him,  were  made  by  Professor  Went- 
worth  on  work  in  algebra,  when  Taylor  was  one  of  his  stu- 
dents, and  that  Wentworth  based  his  assignments  of  lessons 
on  these  studies.  As  soon  as  it  has  been  determined  what  the 
students  can  reasonably  be  expected  to  do,  that  much  should 
be  assigned  to  them  and  no  more,  and  they  should  then  be 
absolutely  required  to  do  it.  The  result  can  not  fail  to  be 
a  great  improvement  in  thoroughness ;  and,  while  the  diploma 


194  EFFICIENCY  IN  ENGINEEKING  EDUCATION. 

may  not  certify  that  graduates  know  so  much,  it  will  mean 
that  they  really  know  a  great  deal  more,  beside  which  the 
moral  training  of  always  fairly  and  squarely  meeting  a 
reasonable  requirement,  will  be  of  inestimable  value. 

VIII.     STANDARDIZATION  OF  OPERATIONS. 

I  have  been  told  that  Gantt  classifies  the  human  race  into 
routine  workers  and  experts.  There  is  something  like  that  in 
his  book,  "Work,  Wages,  and  Profits,"  but  I  cannot  say 
where  I  got  it  in  precisely  that  form.  This  is  by  way  of 
apology  to  Mr.  Gantt,  if  I  have  misquoted  him.  Anyhow,  the 
routine  worker  can  do  only  what  he  is  told,  as  he  is  told  to 
do  it,  following  over  and  over  a  beaten  path,  until  he  attains 
speed  and  skill  as  habits.  The  expert  is  constantly  confront- 
ing new  conditions,  under  which,  by  the  application  of  invari- 
able principles,  he  works  out  methods  in  infinite  detail  to  meet 
each  particular  case. 

The  betterment  man  is  accustomed,  in  industry,  to  blaze  the 
trail  for  routine  workers.  In  the  technical  college  he  is  to  im- 
prove the  education  of  embryo  experts,  who  are  themselves 
to  become  pioneers.  It  would  be  fatal  to  their  development 
to  make  them  work  according  to  hard  and  fast  rules  such  as 
are  set  before  the  routine  workman.  On  the  contrary,  prob- 
lems must  be  set  before  them  which  they  must  be  left  to  solve 
as  nearly  on  their  own  resources  as  possible.  Only  by  so 
doing  can  they  attain  the  necessary  independence  and  self- 
reliance.  The  industrial  operation  is  standardized  in  order 
that  the  routine  worker  may  do  it  in  the  most  efficient  way. 
It  is  vastly  less  important  that  the  student  should  do  his  work 
in  the  best  way  than  that  he  should  do  it  himself.  An  excel- 
lent paper  along  this  line  was  contributed  to  the  American 
Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers  some  five  years  ago  by  Dr. 
Lucke,  under  the  title  of  "The  Function  of  Laboratory 
Courses."  After  myself  experiencing  conviction  of  sin  as  a 
result  of  that  paper,  I  entirely  withdrew  from  my  senior 
laboratory  students  all  written  instructions  for  their  work 


GEOKGE   H.    SHEPABD.  195 

and  required  them  to  work  out  their  own  solutions  of  labora- 
tory problems.  Nevertheless  this  led  to  a  standardization  of 
the  operation  of  such  solution  along  the  following  lines : 
,  1.  The  assignment  of  a  problem ;  for  example,  to  determine 
the  thermal  efficiency  of  some  engine  over  its  complete  range 
of  load ; 

2.  A  preliminary  lecture,  giving  only  so  much  explanation 
as  was  absolutely  necessary; 

3.  The  division  of  the  students  assigned  to  a  problem  into 
certain  standard  committees, 

The  Foreman,  and  Committee  on  Stations  and  Duties  for  Ex- 
perimental Work, 
Committee  on  Apparatus, 
Committee  on  Runs  and  Logs, 
Committee  on  Final  Report,  and 
Committee  on  Prediction  of  Result ; 

4.  The  rotation  during  the  year,  of  each  student  through 
all  the  committees,  so  that  he  gained  an  experience  of  all 
phases  of  laboratory  work ; 

5.  The  preparation  by  each  committee  of  a  report  on  its 
part  of  the  problem,  comprising  definite  instructions  for  the 
conduct  of  the  further  work ; 

6.  A  seminar  in  which  each  committee  presented  its  report, 
which  formed  the  basis  of  action  by  the  whole  squad ; 

7.  A  preliminary  report  on  the  problem  from  the  whole 
squad ; 

8.  The  performance  of  the  experimental  work  under  direc- 
tion of  the  foreman,  in  accord  with  the  preliminary  report ; 

9.  The  calculation  of  results  by  the  whole  squad  under 
direction  of  the  foreman ;  and 

10.  The  submission  of  a  final  report  by  the  whole  squad. 
The  above  is  submitted  as  a  concrete  example  of  the  fact 

that  it  is  possible  to  standardize  operations  and  at  the  same 
time  to  put  upon  the  student  the  responsibility  of  solving  his 
problems  for  himself.  It  would  be  an  impertinence  for  me 
to  offer  to  my  fellow  members  any  further  suggestions  as  to 


196  EFFICIENCY  IN  ENGINEERING  EDUCATION. 

the  standardization  of  their  own  operations.  As  to  the  stu- 
dent, many  of  his  operations  might  be  standardized  with 
improvement  in  his  efficiency,  and  without  decrease  of  his 
independence.  For  example,  it  was  not  until  my  own  fourth 
year  in  college  that  I  learned  how  to  study  a  technical  text. 
Until  that  time,  when  the  author  said,  "It  is  obvious  that,"  I 
immediately  set  to  work  to  dig  out  for  myself  the  conclusion, 
which  in  most  cases  was  very  far  from  obvious  to  me.  I 
finally  found  that  the  author  usually  gave  his  reasoning  on 
the  next  page,  a  discovery  that  has  saved  me  many  a  weary 
hour  since.  Doubtless  it  developed  my  cerebral  tissue  to  think 
for  myself  the  thoughts  of  Cotterill,  Remsen,  Thurston,  and 
their  peers;  but,  for  a  college  boy,  the  task  was  almost  too 
much,  as  some  narrow  escapes  from  being  sent  home  pain- 
fully impressed  upon  me.  Probably  others  have  failed  from 
similar  causes,  who  might  have  been  saved  to  professional 
careers  merely  by  standardization  of  the  operation  of  pre- 
paring a  lesson. 

IX.     STANDARD  PRACTICE  INSTRUCTIONS. 

I  have  often  had  occasion  to  advise  a  student  to  take  a  tutor, 
not  to  teach  him  the  subject,  but  to  show  him  how  to  study  it. 
At  present  such  occasions  come  to  a  college  teacher  in  a  hap- 
hazard way.  If  he  is  interested  in  his  students  and  enquires 
into  the  troubles  of  any  of  them  who  are  not  getting  along, 
or  if  he  is  the  man  to  attract  their  voluntary  confidence,  he  is 
likely  to  have  such  opportunities.  If  he  is  absorbed  in  his 
subject  to  the  exclusion  of  human  interests,  he  may  not  care 
or  even  know  how  his  students  are  getting  on.  In  this 
country  we  are  apt  to  condemn  a  man  of  the  latter  type,  but 
he  is  more  apt  than  the  other  to  know  his  subject,  and  no  man 
can  teach  what  he  does  not  know  himself.  To  know  exhaust- 
ively a  subject  in  up-to-date  engineering  is  one  man's  job,  and 
the  only  way  to  enable  him  to  do  it  at  high  efficiency  is  to 
relieve  him  of  distractions  in  other  directions.  The  college 
teacher's  business  should  be  his  subject,  and  the  responsi- 


GEORGE   H.    SHEPARD. 


197 


bility  for  student  welfare  should  be  in  the  hands  of  a  separate 
corps  of  workers;  while  the  head  of  the  college  should  be  re- 
lieved of  the  details  of  both  kinds  of  work,  but  should  be  a 
man  broad  enough  and  big  enough  to  dominate  both  classes 
of  workers  and  to  control  and  coordinate  their  work. 

The  proctors  should  find  out,  as  a  matter  of  regular  duty, 
instead  of  leaving  it  to  the  teachers  to  find  out  by  chance, 
whether  any  young  man  is  working  inefficiently;  and,  if  he 
needs  standard  practice  instructions,  they  should  have  the 
means,  by  conferences  with  the  pedagogic,  psychological,  and 
medical  staff,  and  by  reports  to  the  head  of  the  college  of 
needed  action,  to  make  sure  of  his  getting  them. 

Standard  practice  instructions  along  other  lines,  for  ex- 
ample the  notation  of  drawings,  may  with  advantage  be  pro- 
vided, and  commonly  are;  but  these  are  matters  of  detail, 
which  vary  with  local  conditions,  and  do  not  admit  of  gen- 
eral discussion. 


X.    PLANNING  AND  DESPATCHING. 

In  the  application  of  the  efficiency  principle  of  planning 
and  despatching,  the  technical  college  is  far  ahead  of  most 


i 

—Period  of  ITIaxi— | 


mum  Power 


Time 


FIG.  1. 

industries.  The  curriculum  as  a  whole  is  planned  from  the 
outset,  subjects  are  arranged  in  logical  sequence,  and  the  time 
allotted  to  each  is  predetermined.  Classes  are  despatched  as 
to  hours  and  rooms,  a  year  in  advance.  If,  however,  we  ex- 
amine the  basis  of  scientific  knowledge  for  our  elaborate  plan- 
ning and  despatching,  the  bubble  of  our  satisfaction  is  imme- 


198  EFFICIENCY  IN  ENGINEERING  EDUCATION. 

diately  pricked.  For  example,  why  is  the  standard  period 
for  a  recitation  or  lecture  one  hour?  I  have  been  unable  to 
find  any  better  reason  for  it  than  that  the  hour  is  a  clock  unit. 

Now  it  is  known  that  in  mental  work,  the  relation  between 
time  and  power  is  somewhat  as  shown  in  Fig.  1.  First  there 
is  a  period  of  decreasing  power,  similar  to  the  "warming  up" 
in  athletics;  then  a  period  of  increasing  power;  then  one  of 
nearly  constant  power,  a  maximum  plateau;  and  then  fatigue 
sets  in  with  continually  decreasing  power  until  complete  ex- 
haustion is  reached.  Also  it  is  known  that,  in  the  early  stages 
of  fatigue,  rest  brings  quick  recuperation;  while,  after  ex- 
haustion is  approximated,  recovery  is  slow  and  rest  must  be 
long.  If  every  one  had  the  same  curve  of  time-power,  it 
would  be  easy  enough  to  find  the  time  of  maximum  power 
ordinate ;  but  there  are  great  individual  differences.  In  some 
cases  the  time  of  warming  up  is  inappreciable ;  in  others  it  is 
very  long.  Some  individual  curves  show  an  absence  of  the 
maximum  plateau.  With  these  individual  differences,  is  it 
feasible  to  find  a  composite  curve  of  which  the  period  of 
maximum  power  will  approximate  the  general  average?  Or, 
if  not,  is  it  feasible,  in  drafting  room  and  similar  work,  for 
individuals  to  recognize  their  own  periods  of  maximum  power, 
and  to  work  accordingly  ?  The  composite  period  of  maximum 
power  being  determined,  how  many  such  periods  per  day  will 
produce  the  maximum  efficiency?  What  should  be  the  inter- 
val between  such  periods?  Perhaps  the  psychologists  know 
the  answers  to  these  questions.  My  own  transfer  to  better- 
ment work  in  industry  has  made  other  matters  so  much  more 
pressing  that,  for  myself,  I  have  been  obliged  to  retire  them 
from  present  consideration.  As  far  as  I  know,  the  psycho- 
logical, pedagogic,  and  medical  staff  have  a  good  piece  of  work 
cut  out  for  them  to  find  the  answers.  Probably  original  re- 
search will  be  needed;  but  efficiency  engineers  would  not  get 
far,  if  they  were  daunted  by  such  a  necessity. 

When  we  know  how  long  a  student  ought  to  work  at  one 
time,  when  we  know  how  many  hours  he  ought  to  work  in  a 
day,  and  how  many  days  in  a  year,  we  shall  be  able  intelli- 


GEOEGE   H.    SHEPAKD.  199 

gently  to  determine  the  number  of  semester-hours  he  ought 
to  carry.  When  we  have  time  standards  for  the  students ' 
work,  we  shall  know  how  many  semester-hours  should  be  as- 
signed to  each  subject.  Let  us  not  be  scared  by  the  number 
of  such  standards  required.  A  certain  large  industrial  com- 
pany has  sixty  thousand  such.  When  we  know  student 
capacity  and  have  time  standards  for  each  subject,  we  shall 
be  able  to  build  up  a  curriculum  with  scientific  accuracy  in- 
stead of  by  rule  of  thumb.  If  the  result  should  be  an  increase 
of  the  number  of  years  of  the  course,  I  should  regret  it ;  but, 
if  it  is  necessary  to  pay  that  price  to  secure  efficiency  during 
the  engineer's  working  years,  it  must  be  paid.  I  expect  that 
general  betterment,  in  education  as  in  industry,  will  so  greatly 
increase  working  capacity  that  there  will  be  no  such  necessity. 
Connected  with  any  effort  to  establish  time  standards  for 
subjects,  there  is  bound  to  be  a  vigorous  pruning,  an  analysis 
of  subjects  into  their  fundamental  principles,  and  a  concen- 
tration of  effort  on  instruction  in  these,  and  in  practice  work 
in  their  application,  together  with  the  cutting  out  of  all  dead 
wood,  and,  in  undergraduate  courses  at  least,  of  refinements 
which  are  of  interest  only  to  the  specialist.  Such  an  elimina- 
tion of  waste  labor  will  in  itself  very  highly  conduce  to  aca- 
demic efficiency. 

Coming  to  detail  despatching,  many  students  are  in  great 
need  of  its  application  to  them  individually.  Some  years  ago 
a  senior  came  to  me  and  complained  that  he  did  not  have  time 
to  do  his  work.  I  said  to  him  "  Getting  your  work  into  your 
time  is  a  good  deal  like  getting  your  clothes  into  your  trunk. 
If  you  stand  across  the  room  and  throw  things  at  the  trunk, 
just  as  you  happen  to  find  them,  you  have  to  get  several  fel- 
lows to  sit  on  the  lid ;  but,  if  you  fold  things  neatly  and  stow 
them  in  orderly  fashion,  you  probably  have  the  top  tray 
empty.  Sit  down  and  let  us  make  out  your  weekly  schedule. " 
The  schedule  being  made  out  accordingly,  showed  no  work 
from  one  o'clock  Saturday  afternoon  until  eight  o'clock  Mon- 
day morning,  whereupon  I  filled  in  for  Saturday  afternoon 
"Physical  exercise  in  the  open  air."  This  young  man  had  a 


200  EFFICIENCY  IN  ENGINEEEING  EDUCATION. 

•very  particular  chum  in  the  coeducational  department;  and 
nearly  every  Saturday  afternoon  for  the  rest  of  his  course,  I 
met  him  walking  with  her,  whereupon  he  used  to  hail  me  with, 
' '  You  see,  professor,  I  am  sticking  faithfully  to  my  schedule. ' ' 
An  efficient  staff  of  proctors  would  have  got  hold  of  this  young 
man  in  his  first  week  in  college,  and  the  course  of  true  love 
might  have  run  smoothly,  not  only  through  the  senior,  but 
the  junior  and  sophomore,  and  perhaps  even  through  the 
freshman  year,  and  that  without  neglect  of  lessons,  by  virtue 
of  running  on  schedule  time. 

XI.    IMMEDIATE,  ADEQUATE  AND  RELIABLE  RECORDS. 

The  technical  college  has  an  abundance  of  educational 
records  which  in  the  main  are  immediate,  adequate,  and  re- 
liable from  the  point  of  view  of  the  faculty,  and  adequate  and 
reliable,  but  not  immediate  enough,  from  the  point  of  view  of 
the  student.  Their  reliability  may  seem  questionable,  seeing 
that  the  marks  which  a  student  receives,  represent  merely  a 
teacher's  general  estimate  of  the  value  of  his  work;  but  ex- 
perienced markers,  working  independently,  will  grade  the 
same  within  a  few  per  cent.,  if  they  have  time  enough  to  work 
with  reasonable  care,  so  that,  unless  the  faculty  is  obliged  by 
overwork  to  mark  hastily,  the  records  ought  to  be  substantially 
reliable.  It  is  my  own  belief  that  a  student  ought  to  know  all 
of  his  marks  very  promptly.  Yet  I  have  known  a  worthy 
professor  to  move,  and  his  faculty  to  pass  a  resolution,  for- 
bidding teachers  to  acquaint  the  students  with  any  marks; 
and,  unquestionably  many  teachers  prefer  not  to  tell  what 
marks  they  give.  I  could  never  bring  myself  to  much  patience 
with  this  attitude.  It  always  seemed  to  me  like  mere  shirk- 
ing. If  a  teacher  gives  a  mark,  he  ought  to  be  able  to  justify 
it  by  good  reasons ;  and  those  teachers  who  willingly  tell  their 
marks  are  not  bothered  by  unreasonable  complaints  from  stu- 
dents, nor  do  they  give  cause  for  reasonable  complaints. 

At  my  own  Alma  Mater  it  was  the  custom  to  post  on  each 
class  bulletin  board  at  the  end  of  each  week  the  names  and 


GEOBGE    H.    SHEPABD.  201 

marks  of  all  students  whose  average  for  the  week  was  unsatis- 
factory in  any  subject ;  and,  one  month  before  the  end  of  each 
semester,  the  names  of  all  students  who  were  in  danger  of  fail- 
ure at  the  end  of  the  semester.  Such  timely  warnings  doubt- 
less prevented  many  failures;  and,  except  that  notice  of  de- 
ficiency might  better  be  privately  given,  the  customs  are  cer- 
tainly worthy  of  imitation.  Not  only  the  student  concerned 
but  his  proctor  should  be  informed  at  once  when  he  begins 
to  receive  failing  grades  and  the  proctor  should  at  once  in- 
vestigate and  start  remedial  measures. 

XII.    EFFICIENCY  REWARD. 

The  principle  of  efficiency  reward  must  be  considered  with 
reference  to  students  and  faculty.  The  student  has  a  form  of 
nominal  efficiency  reward  in  the  marks  which  he  receives ;  but, 
unfortunately,  there  are  not  many  students  to  whom  one  pass- 
ing mark  is  any  better  than  another.  In  fact  some  students 
regard  any  surplus  of  mark  above  barely  passing  as  a  waste 
of  effort  and  an  indication  of  personal  inefficiency.  On  the 
other  hand,  athletics  offer,  in  bodily  vigor,  excitement,  ap- 
plause, admiration,  and  the  coveted  block  letter,  an  immediate 
and  highly  prized  efficiency  reward.  Social  affairs  and  stu- 
dent politics  offer  also  excitement,  applause,  admiration,  some 
power,  and  very  enticing  pleasure.  In  contrast  the  rewards 
of  scholarship  seem  few  and  empty.  It  is  no  wonder  that  so 
many  students  are  diverted  from  the  supposed  main  purpose 
of  the  college. 

By  way  of  increasing  the  rewards  of  scholarship  in  ways 
that  make  an  immediate  appeal  to  the  student,  such  societies 
as  Tau  Beta  Pi  and  Sigma  Xi,  are  of  undoubted  value.  Their 
usefulness  will  be  increased  by  such  marks  of  distinction  as 
the  institution  can  bestow  on  the  local  chapters.  The  main 
solution  of  the  difficulty  is  to  impress  upon  the  student  that 
knowledge  is  the  thing  of  value,  and  that,  if  he  gets  it, 
marks  and  even  diplomas  and  degrees  are  negligible  quantities. 

While  various  means  to  this  end  at  once  suggest  themselves, 
it  seems  to  me  that  the  most  powerful  is  to  give  the  student 


202  EFFICIENCY  IN  ENGINEEBING  EDUCATION. 

an  object  lesson  in  the  need  of  scientific  technical  knowledge, 
to  make  him  feel  his  lack  of  it,  by  bringing  him  from  the 
outset  of,  and  throughout  his  college  course  into  close  practical 
contact  with  industry  by  means  of  the  cooperative,  or  part 
time,  method  of  instruction.  Any  one  who  doubts  this,  has 
only  to  compare  those  of  his  own  students  who  have  had  prac- 
tical experience  with  those  who  have  not.  While  the  former, 
from  necessity  of  spending  much  of  their  time  and  energies  in 
self-support,  may  be  only  fair,  or  even  inferior  scholars,  they 
do  not  fail  from  lack  of  interest  in  their  work.  Once  the  stu- 
dent realizes  that  knowledge  is  what  he  is  after,  and  not  marks 
and  degrees,  his  efficiency  reward  becomes  immediate,  auto- 
matic, and  unfailingly  just. 

Turning  to  the  faculty,  there  are  four  ways  in  which  effi- 
ciency should  be  rewarded :  (1)  by  salary,  (2)  by  social  stand- 
ing, (3)  by  promotion,  and  (4)  by  opportunity. 

As  to  salary,  including  under  this  head  old  age  and  service 
pensions,  the  subject  has  been  worn  threadbare,  and  there  is 
no  profit  in  discussing  it  in  any  length  in  this  paper.  The 
mere  fact  that  the  best  men  are  being  continually  drawn  away 
from  teaching  into  industry  and  that  our  ablest  engineers  are 
to  be  found  in  practice  and  not  in  professorships,  as  in  Ger- 
many, is  proof  enough  that  the  reward  of  our  teachers  is 
inadequate.  When  any  institution  undertakes  betterments,  one 
of  the  first  uses  that  must  be  made  of  financial  economies  re- 
sulting from  greater  efficiency  of  the  material  side  of  the  insti- 
tution, from  immediate,  adequate  and  reliable  cost-keeping, 
from  using  costly  steam  heat  to  warm  buildings  in  use,  instead 
of  to  kill  the  campus  grass,  and  from  efficient  use  of  buildings 
and  equipment  now  idle  a  large  part  of  the  time,  is  to  increase 
the  compensation  of  its  teachers. 

As  to  social  standing,  the  situation  is  not  bad ;  but  such  dis- 
tinguished consideration  as  attaches  to  a  university  professor- 
ship in  Germany,  would,  of  course,  hold  many  men  to  the 
teaching  career  in  this  country  in  spite  of  more  lucrative 
opportunities  in  practice. 

As  to  promotion,  efficiency  reward  is  here  directly  opposed 


GEOKGE    H.    SHEPABD.  203 

to  the  commonly  accepted  ideal.  The  very  university  presi- 
dent who  fails  utterly  to  support  research  by  his  faculty,  who 
looks  upon  it  in  fact  rather  as  a  diversion  from  their  proper 
work  of  teaching,  will,  if  he  has  an  important  position  to  fill, 
seek  a  man  "whose  name  will  strengthen  the  institution. " 
That  means  inevitably  a  man  who  has  been  in  some  way  a 
discoverer  of  knowledge,  because  mere  teaching  and  adminis- 
tration, no  matter  how  faithfully  and  well  done,  make  one 
known  only  to  his  own  students.  If  the  ideal  is  to  continue 
to  be  merely  "to  teach  such  branches  of  learning  as  are  re- 
lated to  Agriculture  and  the  Mechanic  Arts/'  in  order  to 
attain  efficiency  in  its  pursuit,  efficiency  reward  must  be  based 
upon  it ;  and,  when  promotion  is  possible,  it  must  be  bestowed 
upon  the  efficient  teacher.  If,  without  sacrificing  our  own 
ideal,  we  are  to  adopt  in  addition,  as  we  should,  the  German 
ideal  of  leading  and  guiding  industry  in  the  application  of 
science  to  its  work,  the  ultimate  financial  authorities  of  our 
institutions,  and  finally  society  itself,  which  in  the  end  must 
bear  the  burden  of  all  education,  must  learn  to  support  both 
teaching  and  research,  and  appropriately  to  reward  efficiency 
in  both. 

As  to  opportunity,  a  motive  which,  to  a  man  of  the  right 
type  for  a  college  teacher,  is  quite  as  compelling  as  the  desire 
for  financial  reward  or  for  academic  or  social  position,  is  the 
ambition  for  honorable  fame  as  one  who  has  rendered  dis- 
tinguished service.  To  the  college  teacher  the  means  which  at 
once  suggests  itself  to  that  end  is  research.  The  substantial 
denial  of  such  an  opportunity  in  our  technical  colleges,  re- 
moves from  them  one  great  and  highly  prized  efficiency 
reward.  I  count  among  my  most  valued  friends  one  of  our 
most  distinguished  practicing  engineers,  a  man  of  surpassing 
character  and  of  wonderful  devotion  to  altruistic  service. 
Some  years  ago  he  was  one  of  our  most  distinguished  technical 
teachers,  in  an  institution  ranked  by  all  as  among  the  best, 
and  by  many  as  the  best  in  this  country.  Shortly  after  his 
leaving  teaching  for  practice,  I  said  to  him  that  I  should  have 
thought  that  he  would  have  stayed  in  teaching  in  order  to 


204  EFFICIENCY  IN  ENGINEEEING  EDUCATION. 

develop  his  ideas  by  research  and  invention.  He  replied: 
' 1 1  saw  that  there  was  no  chance  for  me  to  do  anything  of  that 
kind  there. " 

XIII.    FINANCIAL  RESULTS. 

It  may  be  objected  that  the  proposals  above,  all  tend  to 
greater,  not  less  expense.  This  is  the  stock  objection  of  the 
unconverted  captain  of  industry  to  all  suggestions  of  greater 
efficiency.  Inevitably  betterment  work  increases  the  ratio  of 
indirect  to  direct  expense;  but  experience  in  industry  has 
fully  shown  that  it  increases  even  more  the  ratio  of  produc- 
tion to  total  cost,  so  that  the  final  result  is  a  decrease  of  unit 
cost.  Similarly  in  education ;  by  causing  institution,  teachers 
and  students  to  cooperate  in  the  pursuit  of  the  same  adequate 
and  correct  ideals;  by  applying  to  teaching  its  own  sciences; 
by  placing  the  workers  under  competent  guidance;  by  the 
more  thorough  elimination  of  the  unfit  through  discipline; 
by  fair  dealing  with  all  concerned;  by  standard  practice  in- 
structions for  the  performance  of  standardized  operations ;  by 
the  extension  of  the  present  system  of  schedules  of  classes  into 
one  of  schedules  for  individuals  as  well;  by  the  basing  of  all 
planning  upon  scientifically  determined  standards  of  capacity 
under  standardized  conditions;  by  making  records  immediate 
as  well  as  adequate  and  reliable;  by  rewarding  the  efficiency 
of  teachers,  and  by  causing  students  to  appreciate  the  effi- 
ciency reward  which  they  have ;  the  result  is  bound  to  be  an 
increase  of  working  capacity  of  both  teachers  and  pupils :  and 
this,  in  the  end,  is  bound  to  reduce  cost  per  unit  of  product. 


THE  APPLICATION   OF   SCIENTIFIC  MANAGE- 
MENT TO  THE  OPERATION  OF  COLLEGES. 

BY  S.  EDGAE  WHITAKEE, 
Consulting  Engineer,  Hasbrouck  Heights,  N.  J. 

Manufacturers  and  business  men  often  look  upon  their  own 
undertakings  as  peculiarly  different  from  every  other  ap- 
parently similar  business.  It  will  not  be  surprising  that 
every  college  may  feel  that  it  has  problems  unlike  any  other, 
and  of  greater  difficulty.  Naturally,  the  men  connected  with 
the  colleges  and  universities  look  upon  their  duties  as  some- 
thing entirely  distinct  and  apart  from  those  which  occupy  the 
attention  of  people  in  other  walks  of  life.  Yet,  as  a  matter 
of  fact,  these  problems  are  very  much  alike. 

A  college  is  a  big  business  enterprise.  Its  product  is  the 
attainment  of  high  ideals  in  scholarship,  in  character  develop- 
ment and  culture,  and  the  preparation  of  youth  for  the 
activities  of  life  and  for  intellectual  and  spiritual  leadership. 
In  place  of  mechanical  output,  its  product  is  men.  But  the 
element  of  cost  enters  in  just  as  much  as  in  any  other  business 
enterprise,  that  is,  we  want  to  get  as  much  as  possible  for  the 
money.  We  cannot  always  measure  the  value  of  the  output 
in  dollars  and  cents,  yet  every  one  likes  to  feel  that  the  money 
which  he  contributes  to  educational  and  philanthropic  pur- 
poses is  well  expended,  and  future  benefactions  often  depend 
on  showing  a  high  efficiency. 

One  of  the  points  that  show  the  need  of  Scientific  Manage- 
ment is  that  many  institutions  have  difficulty  in  running  on 
their  endowment  income  and  tuition  fees,  and  find  themselves 
constantly  face  to  face  with  a  deficit  or  at  least  hampered  in 
the  extensions  and  expansions  they  would  like  to  make.  It 
may  well  be  that  a  critical  examination  of  the  expenditures 
and  methods  of  some  of  our  colleges  may  be  more  helpful  to 
14  205 


206  APPLICATION    OF   SCIENTIFIC   MANAGEMENT. 

them  than  more  money.  Again,  the  professors  complain  that 
so  much  of  their  time  is  taken  up  by  correcting  examinations 
and  assigning  marks,  and  maintaining  records,  petty  details, 
deadening  routine,  that  they  have  not  the  freshness  and  the 
buoyancy  of  intellect  that  leads  to  creative  thought,  to  ad- 
vancement along  the  lines  of  research. 

In  his  report  to  the  Carnegie  Foundation,  Mr.  Morris 
Llewellyn  Cooke  has  stated  "A  further  increase  in  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  teaching  staff  will  be  obtained  through  such 
specializing  as  will  come  as  the  result  of  functional  manage- 
ment. There  are  some  things  that  are  clear.  During  the 
interviews  which  the  writer  had  with  college  professors,  he 
found  them  spending  time  in  taking  inventories,  keeping  track 
of  appropriations,  mimeographing  examination  papers,  and 
handling  routine  correspondence.  These  things  are  clerical 
work,  and  should  be  handled  outside  the  teaching  field,  and 
not  as  a  part  of  the  teacher's  duties.  In  addition,  there  are 
many  other  things,  including  management  of  the  buildings, 
which  might  easily  be  centralized  and  done  better  by  officials 
who  can  devote  their  time  exclusively  to  them.  Such  changes 
would  leave  the  professor  more  time  for  the  work  for  which  he 
is  especially  fitted. 

"The  manifold  duties  carried  on  by  the  college  professor 
seem  overwhelming.  I  saw  a  single  individual  personally 
assume  the  direction  of  a  large  building  including  labora- 
tories, machine  shops,  power  plants;  maintain  order  and 
discipline  among  seven  hundred  at  times  boisterous  spirits; 
direct  and  inspire  a  teaching  force  of  a  score  of  rather 
unusually  able  men ;  and  keep  in  touch  with  a  large  body  of 
graduates.  The  college  professor  does  not  realize  how  many 
distinct  functions  he  performs.  The  high-priced  presidents 
of  our  railways,  banks  and  steel  companies  would  not  dream 
of  performing  this  variety  of  functions.  They  would  refuse 
to  do  so  because  they  know  they  could  not  do  them  well? 

"This  part  of  raising  the  efficiency  of  the  college  professor 
will  have  to  be  done  by  building  up  central  agencies  for  doing 
much  of  the  work  he  does  now,  and  for  doing  it  so  much  better 


S.    EDGAE   WHITAKEB.  207 

than  he  possibly  can,  that  he  will  be  glad  to  relinquish  his 
responsibilities  in  these  respects." 

In  contrast  with  the  commercial  and  industrial  world,  there 
will  be  found  a  general  lack  of  intensiveness  and  snap  every- 
where pervading  the  universities  and  colleges.  There  is  no 
haste  in  attending  recitations  and  plenty  of  time  and  leisure 
to  discuss  matters  with  those  met  on  the  way.  The  professor 
is  occasionally  five  or  ten  minutes  tardy  in  meeting  his  class. 
If  the  young  man  is  to  succeed  later  in  life,  he  must  realize 
the  necessity  of  intensive  application  to  his  work  during  that 
time  when  he  is  assigned  tasks;  he  must  realize  that  an  hour 
of  his  time  is  a  valuable  thing  and  cannot  be  carelessly 
wasted. 

In  an  address  before  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  Dr. 
Taylor,  referring  to  graduates  of  technical  schools,  said  "Why 
is  it  that  these  young  men  are  discontented  and  of  practically 
little  use  during  the  first  year  or  two  after  graduating  ?  To  a 
certain  extent,  this  is  unquestionably  due  to  the  sudden  and 
radical  change  from  years  spent  as  boys,  almost  solely  in 
absorbing  and  assimilating  knowledge  for  their  own  benefit,  to 
their  new  occupation  of  giving  out  and  using  what  they 
have  for  the  benefit  of  others.  To  a  degree,  it  is  the  sponge 
objecting  to  the  pressure  of  the  hand  which  uses  it.  To  a 
greater  degree,  however,  I  believe  this  trouble  to  be  due  to 
the  lack  of  discipline  and  to  the  lack  of  direct,  earnest  and 
logical  purpose,  which  accompanies  to  a  large  extent  modern 
university  life. 

"As  to  college  discipline,  it  cannot  be  good  training  for 
after  life  for  a  young  man  deliberately  to  be  told  by  the 
university  authorities  that  he  can  flagrantly  neglect  his  duties 
sixty  times  in  one  term  before  any  attention  will  be  paid  to 
it,  while,  if  in  business,  the  same  young  man  would  be  dis- 
charged for  being  absent  two  or  three  times  without  per- 
mission. The  boy  who  joins  the  football  squad  is  given  no 
sixty  cuts  a  season,  nor  is  he  allowed  to  choose  what  he  will 
do.  He  does  just  what  some  one  else  tells  him  to  do,  and 
does  it  at  the  time  and  in  the  manner  he  is  told  and  one  or 


208  APPLICATION   OF   SCIENTIFIC   MANAGEMENT. 

two  lapses  from  training  rules  are  sufficient  cause  for  ex- 
pulsion from  the  team. 

"I  believe  it  is  possible  to  so  train  young  men  that  they  will 
be  useful  to  their  employers  almost  from  the  day  that  they 
leave  college,  so  that  they  will  be  reasonably  satisfied  with 
their  new  work,  instead  of  discontented,  and  to  place  them 
upon  graduating  one  or  two  years  nearer  success  than  they 
now  are;  and  this  can  best  be  accomplished  by  giving  them 
an  earnest  purpose  through  six  months'  contact  early  in  their 
college  life  with  men  working  for  a  living;  by  rigidly  pre- 
scribing a  course  of  studies  carefully  and  logically  selected, 
and  with  some  definite  object  in  view,  and  by  subjecting  them 
to  a  discipline  comparable  with  that  adopted  by  the  rest 
of  the  world. 

"Of  all  the  habits  and  principles  which  make  for  success 
in  a  young  man,  the  most  useful  is  the  determination  to  do 
and  to  do  right  all  of  those  things  which  come  his  way  each 
day,  whether  they  are  agreeable  or  disagreeable. 

"Is  not  the  true  object  of  all  education  that  of  training 
boys  to  be  successful  men?  I  mean  men  successful  in  the 
broadest  sense,  not  merely  successful  money-getters,  successful 
first  in  developing  their  own  characters,  and  second,  in  doing 
their  full  share  of  the  world's  work." 

The  need  of  scientific  management  is  further  shown  by  the 
limited  use  of  the  rooms  in  college  buildings.  As  an  in- 
stance, it  is  reported  that  the  president  of  the  University  of 
Wisconsin  conducted  an  investigation  of  one  of  the  main  build- 
ings of  his  institution,  and  found  that  the  rooms  in  it  devoted 
to  teaching  were  used,  on  an  average,  only  three  hours  a  day. 
This  is  about  the  average  amount  of  use  in  many  instances  in 
several  other  universities  and  colleges.  The  proper  assign- 
ment and  utilization  of  the  rooms  during  the  year  would 
double  the  capacity  of  the  college  buildings. 

In  illustration  of  the  point  of  using,  or  not  using,  the  same 
room  for  different  purposes,  Mr.  Cooke  has  described  two  large 
lecture  rooms.  "One  of  them  at  the  Massachusetts  Institute 
of  Technology  was  reserved  for  a  lecture  which  took  place 


S.    EDGAK   WHITAKEB.  209 

six  mornings  in  the  week  at  eleven  o'clock.  Owing  to  the 
fact  that  the  room  was  made  more  or  less  a  storehouse  for 
physics  apparatus,  it  was  rarely  allowed  to  be  used  for  any 
other  purpose.  On  the  other  hand,  at  the  University  of 
Toronto,  the  far-sighted  professor  in  charge  of  the  department 
had  seen  to  it  that  in  the  construction  of  his  lecture  table 
every  wire  and  pipe  had  a  connection  both  above  and  below 
the  floor,  so  that  on  an  hour 's  notice  it  could  be  removed  and  a 
piece  of  flooring  already  provided  be  put  in  place  and  the 
room  turned  over  to  the  Cercle  Francaise.  Instead  of  having 
a  fixed  blackboard  back  of  the  lecture  table,  he  had  both  the 
board  and  the  partition  back  of  it  so  suspended  that  when  the 
room  was  to  be  used  for  theatrical  purposes,  they  could  be 
raised  entirely  out  of  view,  thus  providing  both  stage  and  flies 
for  a  neat  little  theatre.  The  professor  also  insisted  that 
all  apparatus  be  removed  from  this  and  the  other  lecture  halls 
at  the  conclusion  of  the  exercises  at  which  the  apparatus  was 
used." 

Further,  so  large  an  investment  as  is  represented  by  the 
grounds  and  many  valuable  buildings,  and  the  expensive 
equipment  of  the  modern  college  plant  ought  not  to  permit 
the  buildings  to  remain  vacant  and  idle  during  four  months 
of  the  year.  In  a  few  instances,  as  at  Columbia  and  at  Har- 
vard, this  is  to  some  extent  overcome  by  summer  schools, 
which  have  the  advantage  of  unusual  facilities  and  equipment, 
and  should  be  made  to  yield  an  income. 

There  are  four  general  principles  in  scientific  management 
and  they  are  all  applicable  to  a  college  or  to  a  university; 
but  the  economies  to  be  attained  through  them  come  about 
only  through  the  hearty  cooperation  of  everybody  who  is 
concerned. 

"  FIRST,  A  LARGE  DAILY  TASK. 

"Each  man  in  the  establishment,  high  or  low,  should  daily 
have  a  clearly  defined  task  laid  out  before  him.  This  task 
should  not  in  the  least  degree  be  vague  nor  indefinite,  but 
should  be  circumscribed  carefully  and  completely,  and  should 
not  be  easy  to  accomplish. 


210  APPLICATION    OF   SCIENTIFIC    MANAGEMENT. 

"SECOND,  STANDARD  CONDITIONS. 

"Each  man's  task  should  call  for  a  full  day's  work,  and  at 
the  same  time  the  workman  should  be  given  such  conditions 
and  appliances  as  will  enable  him  to  accomplish  his  task  with 
certainty. 

"THIRD,  HIGH  PAY  FOR  SUCCESS. 

"He  should  be  sure  of  large  pay  when  he  accomplishes  his 
task. 

"FOURTH,  Loss  IN  CASE  OF  FAILURE. 

"When  he  fails  he  should  be  sure  that  sooner  or  later  he 
will  be  the  loser  by  it. ' ' 

But,  it  is  argued,  a  college  has  to  do  with  spiritual  and  in- 
tellectual development  and  the  higher  mental  and  moral 
attainments  and  interests  of  life.  Undoubtedly  this  is  so,  and 
it  is  just  what  we  are  aiming  to  accomplish  through  scientific 
management,  by  so  readjusting  present  working  conditions  as 
to  enable  the  professors  and  their  staffs  to  grow  and  have  the 
opportunity  to  consider  the  higher  ideals  and  properly  guide 
the  college  boys  thereto.  A  high-salaried  man  should  not  be 
doing  those  things  which  a  lower-salaried  man  can  do  very 
nearly  as  well.  Some  one  else  should  do  these  things  for  him. 

The  term  "functional  management"  is  given  to  that  phase 
of  scientific  management  which  provides  that  each  man  from 
the  highest  salaried  to  the  lowest  shall  have  as  few  functions 
as  possible  to  perform. 

Historically,  there  has  been  a  good  deal  done  in  the  line  of 
functional  management  since  early  days.  In  the  old  district 
school,  one  teacher  taught  everything  in  the  grade.  Now, 
even  in  the  elementary  schools,  the  best  of  them,  one  teacher, 
who  is  particularly  good  at  reading,  or  geography,  or  music, 
teaches  the  reading  or  the  geography  or  the  music  for  several 
grades  and  often  has  no  other  subject  to  teach.  This  is,  of 
course,  the  case  in  colleges,  for  the  teaching  is  departmental. 
Now  this  is  unconsciously  the  beginning  of  functional  manage- 
ment, although  not  technically  so  called.  Scientific  study  and 
the  conscious  application  of  the  principles  of  management  will 
bring  about  still  further  improvement. 


S.    EDGAB   WHITAKEE.  211 

Most  of  the  teachers  in  colleges  are  men  of  rare  ability  who 
have  devoted  years  to  training  themselves  in  a  special  branch 
of  knowledge.  It  is  a  matter  of  supreme  importance  to  them 
that  they  should  be  able  to  devote  every  possible  minute  of 
their  valuable  time  to  the  use  of  this  training  and  knowledge. 
Each  individual  in  an  organization  should  count  for  his 
maximum. 

Under  functional  management,  a  man  is  protected  in  the 
performance  of  the  highest  kind  of  work  he  is  competent 
to  do  and  relieved  of  the  things  which  can  be  accomplished  by 
other  agencies.  Applied  to  the  college,  this  functional  method 
will  mean  that  the  work  of  any  institution  will  be  divided 
into  a  large  number  of  functions,  and  that  in  each  of  these 
functions  some  one  person  must  be  supreme.  There  is  a  wide 
difference  between  dividing  all  the  work  into  a  certain  number 
of  positions,  the  occupant  of  each  position  having  many  func- 
tions to  perform,  and  dividing  the  work  into  a  certain  number 
of  functions,  with  some  one  person  supreme  or  expert  in  each 
function. 

Functional  management  is  based  on  the  belief  that  there 
is  one  best  way  to  do  a  given  thing.  This  best  way  can  be 
determined  by  scientific  methods  and  expressed  in  complete 
detail  in  writing  as  a  standard. 

Now  how  will  this  help  the  teacher?  Everything  must  be 
done  to  conserve  his  time.  The  higher  his  position,  the  greater 
will  be  the  incentive  to  do  this.  One  of  the  principal  ways  of 
doing  this  will  be  in  having  much  of  his  routine  work  done 
for  him.  Undoubtedly  the  work  would  not  be  done  quite  as 
well  as  the  teacher  could  perform  it,  and  yet  it  would  pay 
if  the  time  of  the  professor  thus  saved  could  be  utilized  in 
more  important  duties,  and  the  direct  return  to  him  would  be 
his  ability  to  command  a  larger  salary  as  a  result.  For  in- 
stance, examination  papers  are  often  mimeographed  or  type- 
written. The  professor  ought  not  to  be  obliged  to  do  this 
himself.  There  should  be  a  recognized  department  from  which 
he  is  entitled  and  expected  to  receive  a  definite  mechanical 
service  of  that  sort. 


212  APPLICATION    OP   SCIENTIFIC    MANAGEMENT. 

One  thing  could  be  done  as  an  entering  wedge.  Four  pro- 
fessors, not  necessarily  teaching  the  same  subjects,  could 
arrange  together  to  occupy  the  full  time  of  a  low-salaried 
instructor,  who  would  perhaps  do  no  teaching  or  lecturing, 
but  would  lighten  their  labors  in  the  line  of  correcting  exam- 
ination papers,  tabulating  results  and  marks  and  keeping 
records,  and  furnishing  them  with  carefully  written  reports 
of  the  results.  He  could  even  conduct  examinations,  and 
edit  and  typewrite  the  professor's  notes  and  lectures,  with 
the  result  that  each  of  the  professors  would  be  able  to  take 
one  class  more,  and  would  much  prefer  so  doing  to  carrying 
on  the  routine  work  previously  burdening  them.  Such  service 
would  enable  them  to  possess  a  broader  outlook  and  consider 
the  big  things  in  their  respective  fields. 

It  may  be  argued  that  the  professor  cannot  keep  in  close 
touch  with  the  individual  members  of  his  classes  and  know 
how  his  classes  are  assimilating  what  he  furnishes  them,  with- 
out his  actually  correcting  the  examination  papers.  The 
answer  is  that  it  is  possible  for  the  papers  to  be  returned  to 
the  professor  for  his  perusal  without  his  being  required  to  put 
himself  in  the  critical  mental  attitude  necessary  to  detect  each 
error  and  determine  and  affix  the  exact  percentage  of  excel- 
lence. On  the  other  hand,  his  mental  attitude  would  be  one 
of  constructive  study  and  to  attain  this,  a  perusal  of  every 
paper  would  not  be  necessary. 

Again,  there  are  many  courses  that  remain  practically  the 
same  from  year  to  year,  and  which  in  the  presentation  require 
special  apparatus  or  much  mechanical  preparation.  At  pres- 
ent, most  of  this  is  done  by  the  man  who  delivers  the  lecture 
or  by  an  assistant  who  has  been  trained  to  do  this  through 
years  of  practice.  In  industrial  establishments,  more  com- 
plicated work  than  this  is  frequently  done  by  ordinary  work- 
men under  written  instructions.  There  is  no  reason  why,  for 
each  lecture  there  should  not  be  written  instructions  in  com- 
plete detail,  specifying  exact  locations,  etc.,  with  lists  of 
apparatus,  to  be  given  to  a  low-salaried  man.  The  man  might 
even  actually  go  through  the  performance  of  the  experiments 


S.    EDGAB   WHITAKEB.  213 

in  order  that  the  time  of  the  professor  might  not  be  wasted 
when  he  went  over  them  preparatory  to  the  lecture.  This 
would  relieve  the  professor  of  much  subordinate  work  that 
consumes  his  time. 

In  organizing  these  functional  activities,  the  best  progress 
will  be  made  by  doing  things  as  gradually  as  they  can  be  well 
done.  It  will  not  be  best  to  require  everybody  to  use  a  given 
functional  agency  when  it  is  first  started.  Duties  will  be 
willingly  relinquished  to  those  who  will  discharge  them  more 
efficiently,  if  thereby  relief  to  do  larger  things  is  attained. 
A  purchasing  agent  will  find  his  time  profitably  occupied  in 
doing  the  buying  for  those  who  are  anxious  to  use  his  serv- 
ices, particularly  if  they  are  impressed  with  his  efficiency  and 
genuine  helpfulness.  It  will  be  better  for  him  to  make  a  few 
purchases  and  make  them  right,  than  to  force  his  services  on 
those  who  do  not  feel  that  they  require  them.  For  the  result 
will  be  that  practically  every  one  will  turn  over  the  purchas- 
ing to  him  within  a  year  or  two,  without  the  necessity  of  his 
forcing  his  services  upon  them.  People  are  always  glad  to  be 
relieved  of  trouble. 

Many  of  the  activities  of  the  college  are  similar  to  those  of 
ordinary  business,  such  as  the  buying  of  supplies  for  the  main- 
tenance and  care  of  buildings,  for  individual  laboratory  work, 
the  various  forms  of  printing,  reports  and  catalogues,  station- 
ery and  office  supplies. 

The  receiving  and  paying  out  of  money  demands  an  ac- 
counting system  as  comprehensive  as  that  of  many  a  large 
manufactory  or  public  service  corporation.  Oftentimes,  the 
care  of  the  college  funds  is  merely  a  side  issue  of  a  man 
whose  mind  and  inclinations  are  trained  along  entirely  differ- 
ent lines,  along  lines  of  purely  intellectual  and  spiritual  pur- 
suits. This,  however,  is  a  business  matter  and  should  be  in 
the  hands  of  a  shrewd,  level-headed  and  far-sighted  business 
man  or  at  least  should  be  handled  in  a  modern  business  way. 

The  trustees  want  to  know  what  things  cost  and  the  average 
institution  can  give  only  summaries,  and  is  unable  to  give  a 
correct  analysis  or  a  satisfactory  comparison  with  previous 


214  APPLICATION   OF   SCIENTIFIC   MANAGEMENT. 

years.  There  should  be  a  competent  officer,  who  should  devote 
his  entire  time  to  the  work,  whose  business  is  to  study  costs, 
to  analyze  expenditures  according  to  the  teaching  depart- 
ments. For  the  teaching  departments  in  a  college  or  uni- 
versity are  the  equivalent  of  the  manufacturing  departments 
of  an  industrial  enterprise.  To  each  should  be  charged  its 
own  direct  expense  and  its  proportionate  share  of  all  the 
indirect  expenses.  The  entire  expenses,  direct  and  indirect, 
including  the  administration,  should  be  divided  among  the 
various  teaching  departments.  Such  an  officer  should  advise 
department  heads  monthly  as  to  the  amount  of  expenditures 
under  their  appropriations,  and  should  have  authority  to 
prevent  expenditure  in  excess  of  an  appropriation. 

The  general  features  of  college  life,  as  the  library,  the 
chapel  and  the  gymnasium,  are  operated  only  because  they 
concern  teaching.  Following  the  industrial  custom  of  charg- 
ing overhead  expenses  to  the  various  manufacturing  depart- 
ments in  proportion  to  the  wages  paid  in  those  departments, 
the  net  expense  of  such  general  features  of  college  life  might 
be  charged  to  the  various  teaching  departments  in  the  propor- 
tion of  their  teaching  salaries. 

The  dormitories,  however,  as  usually  operated  are  pro- 
ducers of  income.  If,  however,  a  fiscal  year  shows  a  deficit 
instead  of  an  income  from  the  operation  of  the  dormitories, 
the  excess  of  expense  over  income  may  be  charged  against  the 
teaching  departments  in  a  manner  similar  to  the  case  of  the 
library.  The  expenses  of  a  building  may  be  charged  against 
the  building  and  at  the  end  of  the  year  divided  among  the 
departments  using  the  building  in  proportion  to  the  number 
of  hours  in  use. 

The  fact  should  be  established  among  all  departments  that 
there  must  be  some  relation  between  expense  and  the  amount 
of  work  done.  At  most  colleges  this  can  be  done  by  the  pres- 
ent accounting  staff  at  no  increase  in  cost. 

The  typical  college  building  usually  has  its  own  janitor. 
There  should  be  a  superintendent  of  grounds  and  buildings,  in 
charge  also  of  the  power  plant  and  of  all  shops,  with  the  re- 


S.   EDGAE   WHITAKEB.  215 

suit  of  better  service  under  centralized  management.  This 
superintendent  may  have  the  direction  of  a  corps  of  janitors, 
resulting  in  improved  service  and  standard  and  uniform  con- 
ditions of  cleanliness.  Methods  of  housekeeping  may  be  care- 
fully and  critically  studied  and  scientifically  analyzed,  and 
the  best  method  for  each  kind  of  work  may  be  accurately 
described  in  writing  and  adopted  as  the  standard. 

Many  colleges  have  dormitories.  The  average  college  presi- 
dent has  very  little  idea  of  the  number  of  helpers  really  needed 
in  the  kitchen,  the  most  convenient  arrangement  of  the  dining 
rooms,  and  the  most  efficient  method  of  caring  for  a  large 
dormitory.  The  result  is  that  if  he  happens  to  hire  a  good 
steward  or  chef,  the  dining  room  may  be  cared  for  economic- 
ally and  efficiently ;  if  he  has  a  good  superintendent,  the  sleep- 
ing requisites  and  supplies  may  be  bought  with  wisdom.  There 
is  more  likelihood  that  he  will  get  a  poor  and  indifferent 
employee  and  the  college  will  suffer  in  discomfort.  If  from 
scientific  study  of  conditions,  certain  standards  along  these 
lines  were  adopted,  it  would  be  comparatively  easy  to  require 
a  new  steward  or  manager  to  accomplish  definite  results  at 
given  times  with  a  definite  number  of  helpers.  Instead  of 
depending  on  chance,  the  college  would  have  the  accumulated 
wisdom  of  its  past,  in  a  definite  form,  recorded  in  writing, 
upon  which  to  go  ahead  and  make  progress.  There  would 
then  be  no  necessity  for,  nor  immediate  likelihood  of  aimless 
drifting.  Many  a  man,  when  given  a  standard  plan,  is  able 
to  work  satisfactorily  in  accord  with  it,  and  may  even  improve 
it.  If  he  depends  on  his  own  initiative  altogether,  he  may 
fail  entirely  or  at  the  best  attain  only  indifferent  success  or 
the  commonplace. 

An  industrial  establishment  has  found  the  services  of  the 
inspector  very  helpful  and  profitable  in  maintaining  the 
quality  of  its  product.  It  may  be  possible  that  the  college 
should  have  a  similar  inspecting  agency,  to  attain  uniformity 
in  class-room  methods,  as  to  quality  of  teaching  and  as  to 
class-room  discipline,  with  the  motive  of  quietly  averting  those 
conditions  that  might  result  in  serious  harm.  Such  an  in- 


216  APPLICATION    OF   SCIENTIFIC    MANAGEMENT. 

spector  might  develop  methods  of  training  men  for  the  teach- 
ing staff,  for  in  many  institutions  most  of  the  assistants  are 
recent  graduates  without  either  the  teaching,  training  or 
experience  with  the  world  that  would  be  helpful  to  them  in 
their  relations  with  the  students.  As  standards  are  adopted 
in  a  college,  it  will  be  necessary  to  have  an  agency  whose 
special  function  will  be  to  see  that  such  standards  are  properly 
formulated  and  maintained  in  force.  This  duty  might  be 
assigned  to  the  inspector. 

The  development  of  the  function  of  purchasing  agent  will 
naturally  lead  to  the  concentration  of  supplies  of  all  kinds 
in  one  central  storeroom,  from  which  everything  used  in  all 
departments  may  be  obtained,  at  a  great  saving  of  time,  money 
and  convenience. 

The  economical  use  of  the  buildings,  the  planning  whereby 
the  various  rooms  may  be  utilized  each  for  many  more  hours 
per  day  might  be  one  of  the  duties  of  the  registration  depart- 
ment. And  in  consequence,  the  registrar  should  be  responsi- 
ble for  the  planning  of  the  hours  of  the  day  when  courses  are 
to  be  given,  for  he  has  the  records  indicating  the  desires  of 
the  students  as  to  the  courses  which  they  wish  to  take.  If 
rightfully  and  tactfully  handled,  many  students  would  be  led 
to  plan  out  their  courses  more  intelligently  and  more  con- 
sistently, and  the  assignment  of  classes  to  rooms  could  be 
more  easily  handled. 

Among  the  results  of  the  application  of  scientific  manage- 
ment, there  will  be  a  more  genuine  and  hearty  cooperation 
among  the  colleges  and  universities,  in  the  interchange  of 
helpful  information  and  data,  and  even  of  members  of  the 
teaching  staff,  who  will  find  themselves  as  much  at  home  in 
the  atmosphere  of  one  institution  as  in  another.  Owing  to 
the  adoption  of  standard  methods  and  standard  records  based 
on  scientific  study,  comparisons  of  costs  and  efficiencies  will 
lead  to  more  intelligent  administration  and  the  more  effective 
training  of  men  for  coping  with  the  practical  problems  of 
to-day. 


SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT  IN  THE  COLLEGES.* 

BY  EARLE  F.  PALMEE. 
Instructor  in  English,  The  College  of  the  City  of  New  York. 

The  article  in  Applied  Science  entitled  "The  Place  of  Mo- 
tion Study  in  Scientific  Management, "  by  Frank  B.  Gilbreth, 
despite  several  defects  in  style,  is  not  only  an  authoritative 
statement  of  what  motion  study  is,  what  it  has  done  and  what 
it  proposes  to  do  for  business ;  but  is  also  a  clear  and  concise 
review  of  what  scientific  management  itself  is.  It  would  seem 
impossible  to  give  a  more  comprehensive  review  of  the  benefits 
attendant  upon  the  introduction  of  what  he  calls  "func- 
tional" management.  The  diagrams  make  this  already  clear 
exposition  lucidity  itself.  On  reading  the  article  one  wonders 
why  the  scheme  is  not  immediately  installed,  not  only  in  every 
manufacturing  plant,  but  in  every  corporation  and  business  of 
whatever  kind.  It  would  seem  that  as  soon  as  the  plan  is 
understood,  adoption  must  follow  spontaneously.  Of  course 
the  thought  comes  into  every  mind  to  which  the  idea  of  scien- 
tific management  is  new:  "  This  would  require  ideal  men." 
But  even  with  men  as  we  find  them  to-day,  under  the  most 
adverse  conditions,  the  scheme  has  so  many  advantages  that 
one  would  think  it  should  at  least  be  given  a  trial. 

Perhaps  it  is  difficult  for  the  average  business  man  to  get 
the  idea  termed  ' '  functional. ' '  Those  interested  in  any  enter- 
prise too  may  say :  ' '  How  can  four  foremen  run  my  establish- 
ment?" Or  the  proprietor  of  a  smaller  concern  may  declare 
1 '  I  can  run  my  whole  business  myself ;  why  do  I  want  four, — 
let  alone  eight  men  around  me?"  Such  a  man  must  fail  to 
realize  that  the  numbers  stand  for  functions  not  persons  and 
that  "9"  may  stand  for  98  or  1998  as  well  as  for  one.  As 

*  An  abstract  of  the  paper  by  Frank  B.  Gilbreth,  which  is  referred 
to  by  Dr.  Palmer,  will  be  found  as  an  appendix  to  this  article.  The 
editor  would  suggest  to  those  who  are  not  familiar  with  Mr.  Gilbreth 's 
paper,  that  the  abstract  be  read  first. 

217 


218         SCIENTIFIC   MANAGEMENT   IN    THE    COLLEGES. 

soon  as  the  idea  of  scientific  management  gets  into  the  mind 
of  any  fair,  earnest  worker  for  the  benefit  of  humanity,  it 
must  be  recognized  as  the  only,  because  the  ideal,  way  to  carry 
on  work.  Modified  of  course  as  it  must  be  to  suit  every  indi- 
vidual concern,  the  plan  will  be  found  triumphantly  spread- 
ing industrial  peace  and  prosperity  in  the  years  to  come. 

The  place  of  motion  study  will  be  of  more  or  less  importance 
depending  upon  the  kind  of  output  contemplated ;  but  in  every 
department  it  is  of  far  more  moment  than  at  first  appears.  I 
am  thinking  of  it  in  connection  with  the  work  of  education, 
not  humorously  as  did  the  author  of  "Motion  Study  at  Saint 
Catherine's,"  but  seriously  with  an  appreciation  of  what 
hardship  might  be  saved  the  little  boys  and  girls,  the  growing 
youths  of  our  country  by  a  carefully  considered  plan  to  ease 
the  unnecessary  wear  and  tear  of  school  and  college  life. 

Because  it  is  far  easier  to  say  to  a  sick  man,  "Thy  sins  be 
forgiven  thee,"  than  it  is  to  say,  "Arise  and  walk,"  the  ap- 
plication of  scientific  management  to  school  an-i  college  will 
be  difficult.  People  are  not  agreed  as  to  what  the  product  to 
be  expected  is ;  they  have  not  agreed  on  a  definition  of  educa- 
tion. Any  one  can  see  whether  he  has  a  piano  in  the  house 
or  not,  but  no  one  can  see  whether  or  not  a  young  man 's  mind 
is  properly  trained.  Just  this  is  the  difficulty;  what  do  you 
want  college  to  do  for  a  young  man?  Ought  it  to  fit  him  to 
harmonize  with  his  environment,  to  prepare  him  to  study  one 
of  the  so-called  learned  professions?  Or  is  your  theory  any 
one  of  the  thousand  other  ideas  that  are  floating  about  as  to 
just  what  education  is?  If  one  knows  what  the  product 
desired  is,  one  might  even  get  it  from  the  colleges  as  they  are 
managed  to-day;  but  if  one  has  no  idea  of  what  he  expects 
from  an  education,  how  can  he  hope  to  be  satisfied  even  under 
the  most  ideal  management?  If  a  boy  is  sent  to  school  to 
learn  to  read  Latin ;  and  if  at  the  end  of  a  certain  time  he  can 
read  Latin,  but  cannot  build  a  steam  engine,  there  ought  not 
therefore  be  a  complaint  of  the  failure  of  this  college-bred 
man. 

Though  I  have  said  there  would  be  difficulties  in  applying 


EAKLE   F.    PALMEK.  219 

Scientific  Management  to  education,  it  would  be  interesting 
to  apply  Mr.  Gilbreth's  diagram  and  vocabulary,  not  to  the 
phase  of  ' '  education  ' '  which  has  to  do  with  the  business  side 
of  college  life,  but  with  the  work  of  real  education  itself. 

No.  9  would  be  the  teacher  at  work  in  the  class  of  from 
twenty  to  forty  students,  whose  brains  would  be  the  product. 
The  teacher  must  impart  instruction,  give  and  record  marks, 
etc.,  etc.  In  any  college  to-day  No.  9  would  be  made  up  of 
instructors  in  a  large  number  of  subjects,  each  assigning  work 
to  his  students  on  the  theory  that  his  is  the  only  subject. 
Take  the  teacher  of  English  composition,  for  example,  who 
meets  his  class  two  hours  a  week.  Work  enough  to  take  up 
the  student's  entire  time  is  suggested.  Indeed  if  the  course 
in  composition  occupies  a  term  of  sixteen  weeks,  the  student 
must  spend  much  of  his  time  studying  the  theory  of  com- 
position, examining  the  work  of  masters ;  and  he  must  be  con- 
stantly practicing,  if  he  himself  is  to  be  able  to  write,  which 
accomplishment  ought  to  be  the  test  of  the  product.  How 
well  must  he  be  able  to  write?  Standardize?  Surely  we 
shall  be  "going  some"  when  school  and  college  composition 
is  standardized !  But  unfortunately  this  boy  has  other  things 
to  do  in  this  same  sixteen  weeks.  He  must  study  chemistry, 
logic,  a  foreign  language  or  two,  mathematics,  physics;  must 
spend  time  in  the  gymnasium;  attend  the  meetings  of  his 
fraternity ;  take  part  in  the  various  college  activities  and  have 
some  social  life  at  the  same  time.  Think  of  the  poor  brain 
of  that  boy,  the  product  on  which  No.  9,  the  various  teachers, 
work.  It  just  hardens  to  save  itself — that's  all.  He  is  told 
at  the  end  that  he  has  an  education.  Nobody  knows  what  an 
education  is,  as  was  stated  before;  so  it  is  easy  to  say  to  a 
boy  at  the  end  of  four  years,  "You  are  an  educated  man 
now."  This  to  my  mind  is  a  crime.  If  scientific  manage- 
ment can  offer  any  reform,  it  will  indeed  be  a  happy  day  for 
the  people  among  whom  it  is  introduced. 

Indeed  it  would  seem  that  the  only  means  of  salvation  lies 
in  the  introduction  of  scientific  management.  For  each  of  the 
other  functions,  as  marked  out  in  Mr.  Gilbreth's  diagram, 


220         SCIENTIFIC   MANAGEMENT   IN   THE    COLLEGES. 

would  step  in  to  help  solve  the  problem.  Here  comes  No.  8, 
Mr.  Inspector,  who  is  called  in  college,  assistant  professor. 
No,  he  would  have  to  be  more  than  that,  for  the  assistant 
professor  would  control  only  one  subject,  say  English,  and  in 
a  college  as  large  as  the  College  of  the  City  of  New  York, 
would  have  twenty  men  under  him.  So  the  difficulty  grows, 
all  the  time,  because  the  college  of  necessity  must  be  divided 
into  departments.  The  trouble  is  that  the  student  has  only 
one  brain  and  only  twenty-four  hours  in  each  day;  and  if  he 
takes  work  in  six  departments,  he  is  bound  to  be  swamped 
under  the  present  system.  It  would  seem  impracticable  to 
assign  him  to  only  one  department  each  semester.  He  would 
never  get  through  at  that  rate.  To  return  to  Mr.  Gilbreth's 
terms  however:  No.  9  must  be  considered  the  instructor  in 
the  department  of, — say  English ;  No.  8  the  assistant  professor 
in  the  English  Department,  who  no  doubt  would  be  able  to 
include  functions  No.  7,  6  and  5  (it  being  understood  all 
the  time,  that  the  departments  of  music,  drawing,  physics, 
Latin,  Greek,  German,  French,  Spanish,  Italian,  mathematics, 
public  speaking,  physical  instruction,  mechanical  arts,  polit- 
ical science,  philosophy,  education,  etc.,  etc.,  are  equipped  in 
the  same  way). 

No.  4,  the  function  of  discipline  as  it  appears  in  the  factory, 
has  to  do  only  with  Nos.  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  and  not  at  all  with 
the  product.  In  college  that  function  would  be  difficult,  and 
still  confined  to  each  department,  but  complicated  by  the  fact 
that  it  musit  include  as  well,  the  product  or  student  body. 
For  this  reason  it  ought  to  include  not  only  one  but  every 
department.  No.  3  is  usually  performed  by  a  special  officer, 
called  the  curator  or  syndic,  with  a  staff  of  clerks.  This  is 
one  function  which  (touches  closely  the  business  problem  which 
I  am  not  considering  at  all  in  this  paper.  The  instruction 
card  function  2  is  included  in  the  work  of  the  professor. 
Here  again  is  a  great  problem,  because  the  instructions  are 
given  to  the  teacher  by  the  professor  in  his  department,  with- 
out any  real  consideration  for  what  the  student  has  to  do  in 
the  other  departments,  and  must  be  so  given  if  that  subject  is 


EAELE   F.    PALMEK.  221 

to  be  adequately  treated, — which  it  cannot  be  if  the  other 
subjects  are  given  the  treatment  that  they  ought  to  receive. 
Function  No.  1  is  also  looked  after  by  the  professor  in  each 
department.  There  is  in  almost  every  department  a  pre- 
scribed course.  The  student  must  (take  certain  subjects  in  a 
certain  order,  and  may  elect  other  subjects  in  that  department 
after  a  certain  grade  has  been  reached.  The  great  problem 
here  is  not  so  much  the  routing  in  each  department  as  the 
routing  through  the  various  departments. 

This  is  the  live  question  in  the  colleges  to-day;  and  a  long 
article  might  be  written  on  the  way  it  is  failing  of  solution 
because  each  head  of  department  feels  that  the  importance  of 
his  subject  demands  all  the  time  that  has  heretofore  been 
assigned  to  it. 

Cooperation,  coordination,  a  proper  balance  in  assignments, 
— and  incidentally  the  student's  rounded  development, — 
would  certainly  be  furthered  by  the  introduction  of  scientific 
management. 


15 


APPENDIX. 

THE  PLACE  OF  MOTION  STUDY  IN  SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT.* 

I  can  best  describe  "The  Place  of  Motion  Study  in  Scien- 
tific Management ' '  by  first  showing  you  two  kinds  of  manage- 
ment. The  first  has  been  called  traditional  or  military  man- 
agement, each  man  being  responsible  to  one  man  above  him 
and  in  charge  of  all  below  him.  Traditional  management  is 
used  in  military  and  at  times  in  religious  and  political  organi- 
zations. The  division  is  by  men  and  by  grades  of  men  rather 
than  by  functions.  The  second  plan  of  management  is  called 
functional  or  scientific  management.  Here  the  division  is  by 
functions,  the  first  functional  division  being  the  separation  of 
the  planning  from  the  performing.  While  each  function  is 
spoken  of  as  being  represented  by  one  person,  yet  it  may 
denote  such  a  number  of  individuals  as  may  be  necessary. 

The  functions  in  the  planning  department  are:  (1)  Eoute 
Clerk  and  Order  of  Work  Clerk;  (2)  Instruction  Card  Clerk; 
(3)  Time  and  Cost  Clerk;  (4)  Disciplinarian.  Those  in  the 
performing  department  are:  (5)  Gang  Boss;  (6)  Speed  Boss; 
(7)  Repair  Boss;  (8)  Inspector;  (9)  Individual  Worker. 

Each  individual  worker  comes  in  touch  with  eight  men  or 
departments,  not  as  a  servant  of  eight  masters,  but  as  a 
student  of  eight  teachers. 

No.  1.  The  route  clerk  plans  in  advance  the  path  of  each 
piece  of  material  as  it  passes  through  the  shop.  His  function 
is  not  simply  to  look  after  the  details  of  the  moving,  but  to 
determine  the  entire  transportation  career  of  the  material. 
Often  the  route  clerk  is  able  greatly  to  simplify  the  path  of 
materials  by  rearrangement  of  machinery.  I  have  had  one 
case  in  my  experience  where  in  a  woodworking  shop  it  was 

*An  abstract  of  a  paper  by  Mr.  Frank  B.  Gilbreth,  read  before  the 
University  of  Toronto  Engineering  Society,  Friday,  March  8,  1912. 

222 


APPENDIX.  223 

cheaper  to  have  the  machinery  placed  on  heavy  pieces  not 
fastened  to  the  floor  and  to  move  it  around  to  accommodate 
the  peculiarities  of  sequence  of  events  of  each  large  order. 
The  route  clerk  embodies  his  conclusions  graphically  in  route 
sheets  and  charts,  and  they  are  worked  out  in  detail  by  the 
instruction  card  department. 

No.  2.  The  instruction  card  clerk  must  work  out  with  the 
greatest  detail  instruction  cards  for  each  part  of  the  work 
represented  by  the  route  sheets  and  charts,  to  show :  first,  the 
worker  how  to  perform  the  particular  work  shown  on  the  in- 
struction card,  and  second,  the  foreman  what  he  is  (to  see  that 
the  worker  does  perform  and  just  what  he  must  teach  the 
worker  in  order  that  he  may  perform  his  work  to  conform  to 
the  instruction  card. 

After  the  worker  has  performed  his  task,  a  return  of  the 
time  his  work  took,  together  with  the  cost,  is  made  to  the  time 
and  cost  clerk,  No.  3,  who  figures  out  the  payrolls,  the  bonuses 
and  the  cost  of  performing  each  task. 

No.  4.  The  disciplinarian  is  the  man  who  orders  all  matters 
pertaining  to  disciplining.  He  must  be  a  broad  gauge  man 
and  must  be  able  to  keep  peace  in  the  organization,  to  antici- 
pate and  prevent  misunderstandings  and  to  arbitrate  fairly 
such  disagreements  as  actually  took  place. 

The  fifth  function  or  first  in  the  performing  department  is 
that  of  a  gang  boss.  The  gang  boss  of  to-day  is  not  of  the 
" strong  arm"  type  of  man,  but  one  who  can  teach  the  worker 
methods  shown  on  the  instruction  card.  He  must  see  that  the 
worker  performs  the  work  in  the  exact  manner  and  to  the 
exact  amount  required.  In  order  to  get  his  best  work,  it  is 
usually  necessary  to  pay  him  a  bonus  for  each  man  under  him 
who  in  turn  earns  his  bonus,  and  a  double  bonus  if  every  man 
in  the  gang  earns  the  bonus.  It  is  readily  seen  how  such  a 
method  should  bring  out  cooperation  which  is  essential  to 
scientific  management. 

The  speed  boss,  No.  6,  sees  that  the  machinery  moves  at 
exactly  the  right  speed  called  for  on  the  instruction  card. 
The  speed  of  a  buzz  planer  or  of  a  circular  saw  is  dangerous 


224          MOTION  STUDY  IN  SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT. 

when  too  slow.  The  speed  of  a  flywheel  is  dangerous  when  too 
fast.  The  most  advantageous  speed  is  called  for  on  the  in- 
struction card,  and  the  speed  boss  must  be  able  to  show  the 
worker  how  this  speed  may  be  maintained. 

The  repair  boss,  No.  7,  not  only  carries  out  repairs  after 
breakdowns  occur,  but  by  periodic  inspection  and  overhauling, 
prevents  as  far  as  possible  such  breakdowns. 

No.  8.  The  inspector's  work  differs  from  that  of  the  old 
type  inspector  in  that  it  results  in  constructive  rather  than 
destructive  criticism.  The  inspector  under  traditional  man- 
agement often  comes  around  after  the  work  has  been  done, 
condemns  it  and  walks  away.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  inspector 
under  scientific  management  to  stand  near  the  worker  hand- 
ling a  new  piece  of  work  to  see  that  he  thoroughly  understands 
it.  In  this  way  time,  labor  and  material  are  saved. 

As  for  the  individual  worker,  No.  9,  it  will  be  seen  that  he 
receives  not  only  an  instruction  card,  telling  him  what  he  is  to 
do,  how  he  is  to  do  it,  how  fast  he  is  to  do  it,  the  quality  of  the 
work  to  be  done  and  the  bonus  he  will  receive  for  doing  it, 
but  he  receives  personal  teaching.  The  gang  boss,  the  speed 
boss,  the  repair  boss  and  the  inspector  are  ready  to  help  him 
when  needed,  and  the  functional  foremen  of  the  planning  de- 
partment are  ready,  at  call,  to  explain  their  instructions. 

Having  shown  the  principal  functions  of  scientific  manage- 
ment and  their  relation  to  each  other  and  to  the  individual 
worker,  we  are  ready  to  concentrate  on  motion  study. 

The  three  most  obvious  economies  to  be  obtained  by  motion 
study  would  be  to  use  (1)  the  fewest  motions,  (2)  the  shortest 
motions  and  (3)  the  least  fatiguing  motions.  These,  however, 
are  but  a  few  of  the  savings  that  may  be  obtained.  For 
example,  a  man  should  be  given  the  work  for  which  he  is  best 
adapted,  not  as  in  one  case  that  came  under  my  observation 
where  the  tallest  of  men  performed  a  task  that  kept  his  hands 
almost  constantly  within  six  inches  of  the  floor  and  where  the 
smallest  of  men  assisted  in  packing  boxes  in  a  pile  about  seven 
feet  high. 

Motion  study  is  a  part  of  function  No.  2  of  the  planning 


APPENDIX.  225 

department  and  is  an  aid  in  making  out  the  instruction 
card  which  must  show  how  each  operation  may  be  done 
most  economically.  With  motion  study  we  class  time  study 
which  is  very  intimately  related  to  it.  Motion  study  theo- 
retically is  supposed  to  furnish  measurable  units  for  time 
study,  but  the  units  are  so  small  that  they  have  not  until 
recently  been  timeable.  Now,  however,  ordinary  photographs, 
stereoscopic  photographs  and  motion  picture  photographs 
enable  us  to  measure  various  motions  with  great  accuracy. 
The  results  are  quicker  teaching,  automaticity  of  motions  and 
less  fatigue.  These  all  permit  much  faster  motions. 

There  are  a  great  many  " variables  that  affect  the  motions" 
and  I  give  here  a  partial  list  which  will  give  a  fair  idea  of 
what  we  mean  by  the  term.  The  variables  may  be  divided 
into  three  kinds,  (1)  the  variables  of  the  worker,  (2)  the 
variables  of  surroundings  and  equipment,  (3)  variables  of  the 
motion  itself.  Under  (1)  we  have  anatomy,  contentment, 
creed,  earning  power,  health,  temperament,  etc.,  under  (2) 
appliances,  clothes,  entertainment,  ventilation,  lighting, 
quality  and  size  of  material  used,  special  fatigue — eliminating 
devices,  etc.,  under  (3)  acceleration,  automaticity,  combination 
with  other  motions,  cost,  effectiveness,  foot-pounds  of  work 
accomplished,  length,  path,  etc. 

The  scheme  of  motion  study  is  to  discover  perfection  and  to 
perpetuate  it  automatically.  After  having  determined  the 
right  motions,  the  right  times  for  the  motions,  and  having 
grouped  them  into  cycles,  we  then  determine  the  amount  of 
rest  that  must  be  allowed  to  overcome  fatigue.  This  will  give 
us  the  standard  task  for  the  standard  man  who  is  the  best 
man  obtainable. 

Now  that  we  have  so  much  literature  on  the  subject  of  scien- 
tific management,  why  is  it  a  fact  that  the  progress  has  been 
so  remarkably  slow?  The  answer  is  that  many  people  who 
are  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  functions  and  duties  of  the 
men  and  of  the  various  departments  are  not  familiar  with  the 
pitfalls  that  are  ever  present.  As  has  been  said  before,  the 
entire  scheme  is  dependent  upon  the  hearty  cooperation  of 


226          MOTION  STUDY  IN  SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT. 

everybody  in  the  organization,  and  workmen  have  been  de- 
ceived so  many  times  in  the  past  that  they  are  naturally 
suspicious  and  feel  that  scientific  management  must  be 
smothered  while  it  is  still  young.  Again,  it  may  be  that 
the  reason  why  the  benefits  of  learning  the  right  motions  at 
first  are  not  recognized  is  because  the  teachers  do  not  know 
what  the  right  motions  are.  On  the  other  hand  there  has 
never  been  a  case  where  scientific  management  has  been  put 
in  properly  that  all  the  workmen  did  not  realize  that  it  was 
the  best  form  of  management  for  them. 

Now  that  there  have  been  many  successful  demonstrations 
of  scientific  management  where  workers  receive  much  higher 
wages  than  ever  before  and  where  costs  of  production  are 
lower  than  ever  before,  it  seems  unfortunate  that  the  terrible 
wastes  that  are  going  on  under  traditional  management  should 
continue,  and  I  hope  that  this  university  will  consider  seri- 
ously the  study  of  scientific  management,  not  only  for  the 
education  of  the  young  men  who  are  going  out  in  the  world 
as  engineers,  but  also  with  the  idea  of  establishing  a  station 
for  the  collection  of  motion  study  and  time  study  data, 
working  in  cooperation  with  similar  colleges  in  the  United 
States  and  Canada  and  also  with  various  organizations  who 
are  doing  good  work  towards  investigating  and  disseminating 
information  regarding  scientific  management,  particularly  the 
Society  to  Promote  the  Science  of  Management. 

The  problem  is  too  great  for  any  one  firm,  corporation,  or 
college;  in  fact,  this  is  work  in  which  all  English-speaking 
nations  should  unite  as  we  have  already  done  in  our  investiga- 
tions of  matters  pertaining  to  medicine,  agriculture,  and  the 
animal  industries. 

I  hope  to  see  an  international  bureau  for  the  study,  for 
the  collection,  study,  cataloguing  and  dissemination  of  data 
relating  to  scientific  management,  that  the  workmen  of  all 
countries  may  be  benefited  and  that  unnecessary  wastes  may 
be  eliminated. 


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